Cannabinoids, Phenolics, Terpenes and Alkaloids of Cannabis

The influence of drying and storage conditions on the volatilome and cannabinoid content of Cannabis sativa L. inflorescences

The increasing interest in hemp and cannabis poses new questions about the influence of drying and storage conditions on the overall aroma and cannabinoids profile of these products. Cannabis inflorescences are subjected to drying shortly after harvest and then to storage in different containers. These steps may cause a process of rapid deterioration with consequent changes in precious secondary metabolite content, negatively impacting on the product quality and potency. In this context, in this work, the investigation of the effects of freeze vs tray drying and three storage conditions on the preservation of cannabis compounds has been performed. A multi-trait approach, combining both solid-phase microextraction (SPME) two-dimensional gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (SPME-GC × GC-MS) and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), is presented for the first time. This approach has permitted to obtain the detailed characterisation of the whole cannabis matrix in terms of volatile compounds and cannabinoids. Moreover, multivariate statistical analyses were performed on the obtained data, helping to show that freeze drying conditions is useful to preserve cannabinoid content, preventing decarboxylation of acid cannabinoids, but leads to a loss of volatile compounds which are responsible for the cannabis aroma. Furthermore, among storage conditions, storage in glass bottle seems more beneficial for the retention of the initial VOC profile compared to open to air dry tray and closed high-density polyethylene box. However, the glass bottle storage condition causes formation of neutral cannabinoids at the expenses of the highly priced acid forms. This work will contribute to help define optimal storage conditions useful to produce highly valuable and high-quality products.

Quantitative summary on the human pharmacokinetic properties of cannabidiol to accelerate scientific clinical application of cannabis

Cannabidiol (CBD) is a non-psychoactive substance that exerts numerous pharmacological benefits, including anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties. It has received attention as a useful substance for the treatment of intractable pain, seizures, and anxiety, and related clinical trials have continued. However, the CBD pharmacokinetic results between reports are highly variable, making it difficult to clearly identify the pharmacokinetic properties of CBD. The main purpose of this study was to identify CBD clinical pharmacokinetic properties through meta-analysis. In particular, we sought to derive valid, interpretable independent variables and interpret their pharmacokinetic parameter correlations in relation to the large inter-individual and inter-study variability in CBD pharmacokinetics. For this study, CBD-related clinical trial reports were extensively screened and intercomparisons were performed between internal data sets through systematic classification and extraction of pharmacokinetic parameter values. The candidate independent variables associated with interpretation of CBD pharmacokinetic diversity established and explored in this study were as follows: diet, tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) combination, sample matrix type, liver and renal function, exposure route, dosage form, CBD exposure dose, cannabis smoking frequency, multiple exposure. The results of this study showed that CBD pharmacokinetics were influenced (increased plasma exposure by approximately 2-5 times) by diet immediately before or during CBD exposure, and that THC was not expected to have an antagonistic effect on the CBD absorption. The influence of changes in liver function would be significant in CBD pharmacokinetic diversity. Due to decreased liver function, the plasma exposure of CBD increased 2.57-5.15 times compared to healthy adults, and the half-life and clearance showed a 2.58-fold increase and a 5.15-fold decrease, respectively. CBD can be rapidly absorbed into the body (time to reach maximum concentration within 3.18 h) by oral, transdermal, and inhalation exposures, and lipid emulsification and nanoformulation of CBD will greatly improve CBD bioavailability (up to approximately 2 times). The pharmacokinetics of CBD generally follow linear kinetic characteristics. The importance of this study is that it suggests key factors that should be considered in terms of pharmacokinetics in further clinical trials and formulations of CBD in the future.

Cannabinoid Analgesia in Postoperative Pain Management: From Molecular Mechanisms to Clinical Reality

Postoperative pain (POP) is a challenging clinical phenomenon that affects the majority of surgical patients and demands effective management to mitigate adverse outcomes such as persistent pain. The primary goal of POP management is to alleviate suffering and facilitate a seamless return to normal function for the patient. Despite compelling evidence of its drawbacks, opioid analgesia remains the basis of POP treatment. Novel therapeutic approaches rely on multimodal analgesia, integrating different pharmacological strategies to optimize efficacy while minimizing adverse effects. The recognition of the imperative role of the endocannabinoid system in pain regulation has prompted the investigation of cannabinoid compounds as a new therapeutic avenue. Cannabinoids may serve as adjuvants, enhancing the analgesic effects of other drugs and potentially replacing or at least reducing the dependence on other long-term analgesics in pain management. This narrative review succinctly summarizes pertinent information on the molecular mechanisms, clinical therapeutic benefits, and considerations associated with the plausible use of various cannabinoid compounds in treating POP. According to the available evidence, cannabinoid compounds modulate specific molecular mechanisms intimately involved in POP. However, only two of the eleven clinical trials that evaluated the efficacy of different cannabinoid interventions showed positive results.

A comprehensive review of natural product-derived compounds acting on P2X7R: The promising therapeutic drugs in disorders

BACKGROUND

The P2X7 receptor (P2X7R) is known to play a significant role in regulating various pathological processes associated with immune regulation, neuroprotection, and inflammatory responses. It has emerged as a potential target for the treatment of diseases. In addition to chemically synthesized small molecule compounds, natural products have gained attention as an important source for discovering compounds that act on the P2X7R.

PURPOSE

To explore the research progress made in the field of natural product-derived compounds that act on the P2X7R.

METHODS

The methods employed in this review involved conducting a thorough search of databases, include PubMed, Web of Science and WIKTROP, to identify studies on natural product-derived compounds that interact with P2X7R. The selected studies were then analyzed to categorize the compounds based on their action on the receptor and to evaluate their therapeutic applications, chemical properties, and pharmacological actions.

RESULTS

The natural product-derived compounds acting on P2X7R can be classified into three categories: P2X7R antagonists, compounds inhibiting P2X7R expression, and compounds regulating the signaling pathway associated with P2X7R. Moreover, highlight the therapeutic applications, chemical properties and pharmacological actions of these compounds, and indicate areas that require further in-depth study. Finally, discuss the challenges of the natural products-derived compounds exploration, although utilizing compounds from natural products for new drug research offers unique advantages, problems related to solubility, content, and extraction processes still exist.

CONCLUSION

The detailed information in this review will facilitate further development of P2X7R antagonists and potential therapeutic strategies for P2X7R-associated disorders.

Persisting neurobehavioral consequences of daily or intermittent paternal cannabis administration in F1 and F2 Rats

Repeated paternal preconception exposure to Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC) alone or together with the other constituents in a cannabis extract has been shown in our earlier studies in rats to cause significant neurobehavioral impairment in their offspring. In the current study, we compared the effects of daily cannabis extract (CE) exposure to cannabis on two consecutive days per week, modeling weekend cannabis use in human. The CE contained Δ9-THC as well as cannabidiol and cannabinol. We also extended the investigation of the study to cross-generational effects of grand-paternal cannabis exposure on the F2 generation and included testing the effects of paternal cannabis exposure on responding for opiate self-administration in F1 and F2 generation offspring. We replicated the findings of neurobehavioral impairment in F1 offspring of male rats exposed to cannabis extract containing 4 mg/kg/day of Δ9-THC daily for four weeks prior to mating with drug naïve females. The 4-week cannabis extract exposure caused a significant decrease in weight gain in the male rats exposed daily. In contrast, their offspring showed significantly greater body weights and anogenital distances (AGD) in the third to fourth weeks after birth. The behavioral effects seen in the F1 generation were increased habituation of locomotor activity in the figure-8 maze in female offspring and increased lever pressing for the opiate drug remifentanil in male offspring. The F2 generation showed significantly impaired negative geotaxis and an elimination of the typical sex-difference in locomotor activity, with effects not seen in the F1 generation. This study shows that daily paternal cannabis exposure for four weeks prior to mating causes significant neurobehavioral impairment in the F1 and F2 offspring. Intermittent exposure on two consecutive days per week for four weeks caused comparable neurobehavioral impairment. In sum, there should be concern about paternal as well as maternal exposure to cannabis concerning neurobehavioral development of their offspring.

Charting the Cannabis plant chemical space with computational metabolomics

INTRODUCTION

The chemical classification of Cannabis is typically confined to the cannabinoid content, whilst Cannabis encompasses diverse chemical classes that vary in abundance among all its varieties. Hence, neglecting other chemical classes within Cannabis strains results in a restricted and biased comprehension of elements that may contribute to chemical intricacy and the resultant medicinal qualities of the plant.

OBJECTIVES

Thus, herein, we report a computational metabolomics study to elucidate the Cannabis metabolic map beyond the cannabinoids.

METHODS

Mass spectrometry-based computational tools were used to mine and evaluate the methanolic leaf and flower extracts of two Cannabis cultivars: Amnesia haze (AMNH) and Royal dutch cheese (RDC).

RESULTS

The results revealed the presence of different chemical compound classes including cannabinoids, but extending it to flavonoids and phospholipids at varying distributions across the cultivar plant tissues, where the phenylpropnoid superclass was more abundant in the leaves than in the flowers. Therefore, the two cultivars were differentiated based on the overall chemical content of their plant tissues where AMNH was observed to be more dominant in the flavonoid content while RDC was more dominant in the lipid-like molecules. Additionally, in silico molecular docking studies in combination with biological assay studies indicated the potentially differing anti-cancer properties of the two cultivars resulting from the elucidated chemical profiles.

CONCLUSION

These findings highlight distinctive chemical profiles beyond cannabinoids in Cannabis strains. This novel mapping of the metabolomic landscape of Cannabis provides actionable insights into plant biochemistry and justifies selecting certain varieties for medicinal use.

The Use of Compounds Derived from Cannabis sativa in the Treatment of Epilepsy, Painful Conditions, and Neuropsychiatric and Neurodegenerative Disorders

Neurological disorders present a wide range of symptoms and challenges in diagnosis and treatment. Cannabis sativa, with its diverse chemical composition, offers potential therapeutic benefits due to its anticonvulsive, analgesic, anti-inflammatory, and neuroprotective properties. Beyond cannabinoids, cannabis contains terpenes and polyphenols, which synergistically enhance its pharmacological effects. Various administration routes, including vaporization, oral ingestion, sublingual, and rectal, provide flexibility in treatment delivery. This review shows the therapeutic efficacy of cannabis in managing neurological disorders such as epilepsy, neurodegenerative diseases, neurodevelopmental disorders, psychiatric disorders, and painful pathologies. Drawing from surveys, patient studies, and clinical trials, it highlights the potential of cannabis in alleviating symptoms, slowing disease progression, and improving overall quality of life for patients. Understanding the diverse therapeutic mechanisms of cannabis can open up possibilities for using this plant for individual patient needs.

Opportunities, Challenges, and Scientific Progress in Hemp Crops

The resurgence of cannabis (Cannabis sativa L.) has been propelled by changes in the legal framework governing its cultivation and use, increased demand for hemp-derived products, and studies recognizing the industrial and health benefits of hemp. This has led to the creation of novel high-cannabidiol, low-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol varieties, enabling hemp crop expansion worldwide. This review elucidates the recent implications for hemp cultivation in Europe, with a focus on the legislative impacts on the cultivation practices, prospective breeding efforts, and dynamic scientific landscape surrounding this crop. We also review the current cultivars' cannabinoid composition of the European hemp market and its major differences with that of the United States.

Cannabinoids in the Treatment of Selected Mental Illnesses: Practical Approach and Overview of the Literature

Although an increasing number of patients suffering from mental illnesses self-medicate with cannabis, current knowledge about the efficacy and safety of cannabis-based medicine in psychiatry is still extremely limited. So far, no cannabis-based finished product has been approved for the treatment of a mental illness. There is increasing evidence that cannabinoids may improve symptoms in autism spectrum disorder (ASD), Tourette syndrome (TS), anxiety disorders, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). According to surveys, patients often use cannabinoids to improve mood, sleep, and symptoms of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). There is evidence suggesting that tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and THC-containing cannabis extracts, such as nabiximols, can be used as substitutes in patients with cannabis use disorder.Preliminary evidence also suggests an involvement of the endocannabinoid system (ECS) in the pathophysiology of TS, ADHD, and PTSD. Since the ECS is the most important neuromodulatory system in the brain, it possibly induces beneficial effects of cannabinoids by alterations in other neurotransmitter systems. Finally, the ECS is an important stress management system. Thus, cannabinoids may improve symptoms in patients with mental illnesses by reducing stress.Practically, cannabis-based treatment in patients with psychiatric disorders does not differ from other indications. The starting dose of THC-containing products should be low (1-2.5 mg THC/day), and the dose should be up-titrated slowly (by 1-2.5 mg every 3-5 days). The average daily dose is 10-20 mg THC. In contrast, cannabidiol (CBD) is mainly used in high doses>400 mg/day.

The Potential Antinociceptive Effect and Mechanism of Cannabis sativa L. Extract on Paclitaxel-Induced Neuropathic Pain in Rats Uncovered by Multi-Omics Analysis

Cannabis sativa L. (hemp) is a herbaceous plant rich in cannabinoids with a long history of use in pain treatment. The most well-characterized cannabinoids, cannabidiol (CBD) and Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC), garnered much attention in chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy (CIPN) treatment. However, few studies have investigated the biological benefits and mechanism of hemp extract on CIPN. In the present study, hemp extract (JG) rich in cannabinoids was extracted by supercritical fluid carbon dioxide extraction (SFCE). The antinociceptive efficacy was evaluated using a paclitaxel-induced peripheral neuropathy (PIPN) rat model based on behavioral tests. Further omics-based approaches were applied to explore the potential mechanisms. The results showed that JG decreased mechanical allodynia, thermal hyperalgesia, and inflammatory cytokines in PIPN rats significantly. Transcriptome analysis identified seven key genes significantly regulated by JG in PIPN model rats, mainly related to the neuroactive ligand-receptor interaction pathway, PPAR signaling pathway, and cAMP signaling pathway. In metabolomic analysis, a total of 39 significantly altered metabolites were identified, mainly correlated with pentose and glucuronate interconversions and the glycerophospholipid metabolism pathway. Gut microbiota analysis suggested that increased community Lachnoclostridium and Lachnospiraceae_UCG-006 in PIPN rats can be reversed significantly by JG. In conclusion, hemp extract exhibited antinociceptive effects on PIPN. The analgesic mechanism was probably related to the regulation of inflammation, neuroactive ligand-receptor interaction pathway, sphingolipid metabolism, etc. This study provides novel insights into the functional interactions of Cannabis sativa L. extract on PIPN.

Hexahydrocannabinol (HHC) and Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC) driven activation of cannabinoid receptor 1 results in biased intracellular signaling

The Cannabis sativa plant has been used for centuries as a recreational drug and more recently in the treatment of patients with neurological or psychiatric disorders. In many instances, treatment goals include relief from posttraumatic disorders, anxiety, or to support treatment of chronic pain. Ligands acting on cannabinoid receptor 1 (CB1R) are also potential targets for the treatment of other health conditions. Using an evidence-based approach, pharmacological investigation of CB1R agonists is timely, with the aim to provide chronically ill patients relief using well-defined and characterized compounds from cannabis. Hexahydrocannabinol (HHC), currently available over the counter in many countries to adults and even children, is of great interests to policy makers, legal administrators, and healthcare regulators, as well as pharmacologists. Herein, we studied the pharmacodynamics of HHC epimers, which activate CB1R. We compared their key CB1R-mediated signaling pathway activities and compared them to the pathways activated by Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC). We provide evidence that activation of CB1R by HHC ligands is only broadly comparable to those mediated by Δ9-THC, and that both HHC epimers have unique properties. Together with the greater chemical stability of HHC compared to Δ9-THC, these molecules have a potential to become a part of modern medicine.

Phytocannabinoids CBD, CBG, and their Derivatives CBD-HQ and CBG-A Induced In Vitro Cytotoxicity in 2D and 3D Colon Cancer Cell Models

Phytocannabinoids, compounds found in Cannabis sativa L., are used in oncology and palliative care to reduce the adverse reactions of standard therapies. Cancer patients use formulations of Cannabis sativa L. to manage the anxiety, pain, and nausea associated with cancer treatment, and there is growing evidence that some of them may exhibit anticancer properties. In this study, we tested the anticancer potential of selected cannabinoids CBD (cannabidiol) and its quinone derivative CBD-HQ (cannabidiol hydroquinone), CBG (cannabigerol) and its acid derivative CBG-A (cannabigerolic acid), as well as a combination of CBD+CBG on the colon cancer cell line SW-620. The MTT assay was used to determine the cannabinoids' ability to induce colon cancer cell death. All cannabinoids were cytotoxic at the lowest concentration (3 μg/mL). The half maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) ranged from 3.90 to 8.24 μg/mL, depending on the substance. Cytotoxicity was confirmed in a 3D spheroidal cell culture with calcein and propidium iodide staining. The amount of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) was examined using a DCF-DA assay. CBG showed the lowest antioxidant activity of all the cannabinoids tested. The level of intracellular ROS decreased only by 0.7-18%. However, CBG-A induced the strongest reduction in ROS level by 31-39%. Our results suggest that cannabinoids represent an interesting research direction with great implementation potential. These preliminary results represent the beginning of research into the potential of these substances for anticancer treatment and underscore the potential for further research.

In silico genome-wide analysis of homeodomain-leucine zipper transcription factors in Cannabis sativa L

HD-Zip (Homeodomain-Leucine Zipper) is a family of transcription factors unique to higher plants and plays a vital role in plant growth and development. Increasing research results show that HD-Zip transcription factors are widely involved in many life processes in plants. However, the HD-Zip transcription factor for cannabis, a valuable crop, has not yet been identified. The sequence characteristics, chromosome localization, system evolution, conservative motif, gene structure, and gene expression of the HD-Zip transcription factor in the cannabis genome were systematically studied. Real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) was used to verify its function. The results showed that cannabis contained 33 HD-Zip gene members. The number of amino acids is 136-849aa, the isoelectric point is 4.54-9.04, and the molecular weight is 23264.32-93147.87Da. Many cis-acting elements are corresponding to hormone and abiotic stress in the HD-Zip family promoter area of cannabis. Sequencing of the transcriptome at 5 tissue sites of hemp, stems, leaves, bracts, and seeds showed similar levels of expression of 33 members of the HD-Zip gene family at 5 tissue sites. Bioinformatics results show that HD-Zip expression is tissue-specific and may be influenced by hormones and environmental factors. This lays a foundation for further research on the gene function of HD-Zip.

Simultaneous analysis of cannabinoids and terpenes in Cannabis sativa inflorescence using full comprehensive two-dimensional liquid chromatography coupled to smart active modulation

Nowadays, the higher peak capacity achievable by comprehensive two-dimensional liquid chromatography (LC×LC) for the analysis of vegetal samples is well-recognized. In addition, numerous compounds may be present in very different amounts. Cannabinoids and terpenes represent the main components of Cannabis sativa inflorescence samples, whose quantities are relevant for many application purposes. The analyses of both families are performed by different methods, at least two different separation methodologies, mainly according to their chemical characteristics and concentration levels. In this work, concentration differences and sample complexity issues were addressed using an LC×LC method that incorporates an optimized modulation strategy, namely smart active modulation, for the simultaneous analysis of cannabinoids and terpenes. The system was built by interposing an active flow splitter pump between both dimensions. This set up aimed to exploit the known advantages of LC×LC. In addition, here we proposed to use the splitter pump for online control over the splitting ratio to facilitate the selective dilution of different eluted fractions containing compounds with highly different concentrations. This work represents the first application and demonstration of smart active modulation (SAM) in LC×LC to simultaneously determine analytes with significant differences in concentration levels present in complex samples. The proposed method was tested with eight different strains, from which fingerprints were taken, and numerous cannabinoids and terpenes were identified in these samples. With this strategy, between 49 and 54 peaks were obtained in the LC×LC chromatograms corresponding to different strains. THCA-A was the main component in six strains, while CBDA was the main component in the other two strains. The main terpenes found were myrcene (in five strains), limonene (in two strains), and humulene (in one strain). Additionally, numerous other cannabinoids and terpenes were identified in these samples, providing valuable compositional information for growers, as well as medical and recreational users. The SAM strategy here proposed is simple and it can be extended to other complex matrices.

Immunostimulatory and Antibacterial Effects of Cannabis sativa L. Leaves on Broilers

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of dried Cannabis sativa L. leaves as a phytogenic mixture added to broiler feed on CD4+ and CD8+ T lymphocyte subpopulations, Newcastle disease virus (NDV) antibody titres, and the presence of E. coli in faecal samples. The study was conducted on 100 male Ross 308 broilers, divided into four groups of 25 broilers, for a 42-day research period. The groups were housed separately in boxes on a litter of softwood shavings and were fed starter mixture from day 1 to day 21 and finisher mixture from day 22 to day 42. Industrial hemp (C. sativa) was grown in the Crkvina area, Croatia (latitude: 45°18'46.8″ N; longitude: 15°31'30″ E). The hemp leaves were manually separated, sun-dried, and ground to a powder. The mixture offered to the control group did not contain cannabis leaves, whereas the three experimental groups received mixtures containing mixed cannabis leaves in a quantity of 10 g/kg, 20 g/kg, or 30 g/kg (E_10, E_20, and E_30, respectively). The mean NDV antibody level was uniform in all study groups until post-vaccination day 14 and increased comparably with time. The percentage of CD4+ and CD8+ lymphocytes in the peripheral blood subpopulation showed statistically significant differences (p < 0.001) in the E_20 group as compared with the control group and both the E_10 and E_30 groups throughout the study period. As the broiler age increased, the CD4+-to-CD8+ ratios also increased and were statistically significant (p < 0.0001) on day 42 in all experimental groups as compared to the control group. Comparing the control group with the experimental groups indicated that the bacterial count was lower in broiler groups having received feed with the addition of 20 g/kg and 30 g/kg C. sativa leaves. In conclusion, the C. sativa leaves were found to elicit a favourable immunomodulatory effect on cell-mediated and humoral immune responses in broilers via increased CD4+ and CD8+ lymphocyte subpopulations and higher CD4+:CD8+ cell ratios, thus indicating enhanced immune function capacity. In addition, C. sativa leaves may have complementary effects on the broiler post-vaccination immune response, increase broilers' resistance to infectious diseases, reduce the effect of stress associated with vaccination, and improve broiler health and welfare.

In Pursuit of Optimal Quality: Cultivar-Specific Drying Approaches for Medicinal Cannabis

A limited number of studies have examined how drying conditions affect the cannabinoid and terpene content in cannabis inflorescences. In the present study, we evaluated the potential of controlled atmosphere drying chambers for drying medicinal cannabis inflorescence. Controlled atmosphere drying chambers were found to reduce the drying and curing time by at least 60% compared to traditional drying methods, while preserving the volatile terpene content. On the other hand, inflorescences subjected to traditional drying were highly infested by Alternaria alternata and also revealed low infestation of Botrytis cinerea. In the high-THC chemovar ("240"), controlled N2 and atm drying conditions preserved THCA concentration as compared to the initial time point (t0). On the other hand, in the hybrid chemovar ("Gen12") all of the employed drying conditions preserved THCA and CBDA content. The optimal drying conditions for preserving monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes in both chemovars were C5O5 (5% CO2, 5% O2, and 90% N2) and pure N2, respectively. The results of this study suggest that each chemovar may require tailored drying conditions in order to preserve specific terpenes and cannabinoids. Controlled atmosphere drying chambers could offer a cost-effective, fast, and efficient drying method for preserving cannabinoids and terpenes during the drying process while reducing the risk of mold growth.

Improved Long-Term Preservation of Cannabis Inflorescence by Utilizing Integrated Pre-Harvest Hexanoic Acid Treatment and Optimal Post-Harvest Storage Conditions

The effort to maintain cannabinoid and terpene levels in harvested medicinal cannabis inflorescence is crucial, as many studies demonstrated a significant concentration decrease in these compounds during the drying, curing, and storage steps. These stages are critical for the preparation and preservation of medicinal cannabis for end-use, and any decline in cannabinoid and terpene content could potentially reduce the therapeutic efficacy of the product. Consequently, in the present study, we determined the efficacy of pre-harvest hexanoic acid treatment alongside four months of post-harvest vacuum storage in prolonging the shelf life of high THCA cannabis inflorescence. Our findings indicate that hexanoic acid treatment led to elevated concentrations of certain cannabinoids and terpenes on the day of harvest and subsequent to the drying and curing processes. Furthermore, the combination of hexanoic acid treatment and vacuum storage yielded the longest shelf life and the highest cannabinoid and mono-terpene content as compared to all other groups studied. Specifically, the major cannabinoid's-(-)-Δ9-trans-tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (THCA)-concentration decreased by 4-23% during the four months of storage with the lowest reduction observed following hexanoic acid pre-harvest treatment and post-harvest vacuum storage. Hexanoic acid spray application displayed a more pronounced impact on mono-terpene preservation than storage under vacuum without hexanoic acid treatment. Conversely, sesqui-terpenes were observed to be less prone to degradation than mono-terpenes over an extended storage duration. In summation, appropriate pre-harvest treatment coupled with optimized storage conditions can significantly extend the shelf life of cannabis inflorescence and preserve high active compound concentration over an extended time period.

Chemistry and pharmacological aspects of furanoid cannabinoids and related compounds: Is furanoid cannabinoids open a new dimension towards the non-psychoactive cannabinoids?

Cannabinoids have emerged as compelling candidates for medicinal applications, notably following the recent approval of non-psychoactive cannabidiol (CBD) as a medicine. This endorsement has stimulated a growing interest in this class of compounds for drug discovery. Within the cannabis plant, a rich reservoir of over 125 compounds exists. Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), a member of the dibenzopyran class, is widely recognized for its psychoactive effects. Conversely, the furanoid class, represented by cannabielsoin-type (CBE) and cannabifuran-type (CBF) compounds, has not been reported with psychoactivity and demonstrates a spectrum of pharmacological potential. The transition from the pyran structure of THC to the furan structure of CBE seems to mark a shift from psychoactive to non-psychoactive properties, but a comprehensive examination of other members in this class is essential for a complete understanding. Building on these observations, our thorough review delves into the subject, offering a comprehensive exploration of furanoid cannabinoids, covering aspects such as their biosynthesis, classification, synthesis, and medicinal potential. The aim of this review is to encourage and catalyze increased research focus in this promising area of cannabinoid exploration.

The progress of small molecules against cannabinoid 2 receptor (CB2R)

The two subtypes of cannabinoid receptors (CBR), namely CB1R and CB2R, belong to the G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) superfamily and are confirmed as potential therapeutic targets for a variety of diseases such as inflammation, neuropathic pain, and immune-related disorders. Since CB1R is mainly distributed in the central nervous system (CNS), it could produce severe psychiatric adverse reactions and addiction. In contrast, CB2R are predominantly distributed in the peripheral immune system with minimal CNS-related side effects. Therefore, more attention has been devoted to the discovery of CB2R ligands. In view of the favorable profile of CB2R, many high-binding affinity and selectivity CB2R ligands have been developed recently. This paper reviews recent research progress on CB2R ligands, including endogenous CB2R ligands, natural compounds, and novel small molecules, in order to provide a reference for subsequent CB2R ligand development.

Recent advances in the development of portable technologies and commercial products to detect Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol in biofluids: a systematic review

BACKGROUND

The primary components driving the current commercial fascination with cannabis products are phytocannabinoids, a diverse group of over 100 lipophilic secondary metabolites derived from the cannabis plant. Although numerous phytocannabinoids exhibit pharmacological effects, the foremost attention has been directed towards Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol, the two most abundant phytocannabinoids, for their potential human applications. Despite their structural similarity, THC and cannabidiol diverge in terms of their psychotropic effects, with THC inducing notable psychological alterations. There is a clear need for accurate and rapid THC measurement methods that offer dependable, readily accessible, and cost-effective analytical information. This review presents a comprehensive view of the present state of alternative technologies that could potentially facilitate the creation of portable devices suitable for on-site usage or as personal monitors, enabling non-intrusive THC measurements.

METHOD

A literature survey from 2017 to 2023 on the development of portable technologies and commercial products to detect THC in biofluids was performed using electronic databases such as PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar. A systematic review of available literature was conducted using Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic. Reviews and Meta-analysis (PRISMA) guidelines.

RESULTS

Eighty-nine studies met the selection criteria. Fifty-seven peer-reviewed studies were related to the detection of THC by conventional separation techniques used in analytical laboratories that are still considered the gold standard. Studies using optical (n = 12) and electrochemical (n = 13) portable sensors and biosensors were also identified as well as commercially available devices (n = 7).

DISCUSSION

The landscape of THC detection technology is predominantly shaped by immunoassay tests, owing to their established reliability. However, these methods have distinct drawbacks, particularly for quantitative analysis. Electrochemical sensing technology holds great potential to overcome the challenges of quantification and present a multitude of advantages, encompassing the possibility of miniaturization and diverse modifications to amplify sensitivity and selectivity. Nevertheless, these sensors have considerable limitations, including non-specific interactions and the potential interference of compounds and substances existing in biofluids.

CONCLUSION

The foremost challenge in THC detection involves creating electrochemical sensors that are both stable and long-lasting while exhibiting exceptional selectivity, minimal non-specific interactions, and decreased susceptibility to matrix interferences. These aspects need to be resolved before these sensors can be successfully introduced to the market.

The comprehensive review about elements accumulation in industrial hemp (Cannabis sativa L.)

Cannabis sativa L., commonly known as industrial hemp, is a versatile plant with applications ranging from medicinal to agricultural and industrial uses. Despite its benefits, there is a notable gap in regulatory toxicology, in understanding the extent of element accumulation in hemp, which is critical due to its ability to absorb various elements from the soil, including heavy metals (Pb, Cd, Hg, and As), uptakes potential toxic elements (e.g., Sb, Sn, Sr, Bi, Tl), problematic elements (Ni, Cr, Co), and essential elements (Zn, Cu, Fe, Mn). The paper aims to enrich current understandings by offering a comprehensive analysis of elements absorption in industrial hemp. This study emphasizes the potential health risks linked with hemp consumption including regulatory toxicology aspects: limits, Permitted Daily Exposures (PDE), recommendations in different countries and from different agencies/bodies (like the WHO and the EU) based on route of administration, jurisdiction and actual literature review. This review contributes significantly to the knowledge base on hemp safety, serving as a valuable resource for researchers, regulatory bodies, and industry stakeholders.

The transcriptomic response to cannabidiol of Treponema denticola, a phytocannabinoid-resistant periodontal pathogen

AIM

The use of cannabis, which contains multiple antimicrobials, may be a risk factor for periodontitis. We hypothesized that multiple oral spirochetes would be phytocannabinoid-resistant and that cannabidiol (CBD) would act as an environmental stressor to which Treponema denticola would respond transcriptionally, thereby providing first insights into spirochetal survival strategies.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Oral spirochete growth was monitored spectrophotometrically in the presence and absence of physiologically relevant phytocannabinoid doses, the transcriptional response to phytocannabinoid exposure determined by RNAseq, specific gene activity fluxes verified using qRT-PCR and orthologues among fully sequenced oral spirochetes identified.

RESULTS

Multiple strains of oral treponemes were resistant to CBD (0.1-10 μg/mL), while T. denticola ATCC 35405 was resistant to all phytocannabinoids tested (CBD, cannabinol [CBN], tetrahydrocannabinol [THC]). A total of 392 T. denticola ATCC 35405 genes were found to be CBD-responsive by RNAseq. A selected subset of these genes was independently verified by qRT-PCR. Genes found to be differentially activated by both methods included several involved in transcriptional regulation and toxin control. Suppressed genes included several involved in chemotaxis and proteolysis.

CONCLUSIONS

Oral spirochetes, unlike some other periodontal bacteria, are resistant to physiological doses of phytocannabinoids. Investigation of CBD-induced transcriptomic changes provided insight into the resistance mechanisms of this important periodontal pathogen. These findings should be considered in the context of the reported enhanced susceptibility to periodontitis in cannabis users.

Prediction and Discovery of Cannabidiol Crystal Polymorph Form 2

The article puts into perspective the recent discovery of cannabidiol crystal polymorph Form 2.

Health-Promoting Opportunities of Hemp Hull: The Potential of Bioactive Compounds

Hemp hull is the outer coat of the hemp seed, derived from the plant Cannabis sativa L., Cannabaceae. While much attention has been paid to hemp seed for its oil, protein and micronutrient content, far less attention has been given to hemp hull, a side stream of hemp processing. Hemp hull is a source of bioactive compounds, dietary fiber, minerals as well as protein, lipids and carbohydrates. Of note, two bioactive compounds, n-trans-caffeoyltyramine and n-trans-feruloyltyramine have been identified in hemp hull as key bioactive compounds that support gut health, liver function and other physiological processes. Both of these compounds were identified as agonists of the transcription factor, hepatic nuclear factor-4 alpha which has been implicated in gene expression that governs gut permeability, factors associated with inflammatory bowel diseases, and hepatic lipid homeostasis. Additionally, the dietary fibers in hemp hull have been demonstrated to be novel prebiotics, which may further amplify hemp hull's effect on gut health and metabolic health. This review article summarizes the nutritional content of hemp hull, explores the physiological effects of bioactive compounds found in hemp hull, and identifies opportunities for further research on hemp hull for human health benefit.

Serum and Urine Quantification of Delta-8 and Delta-9 Tetrahydrocannabinol Carboxylic Acid Using Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry

Marijuana is one of the most frequently used drugs in the United States. The major psychoactive ingredient of the marijuana plant is delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC) with delta-8-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ8-THC) also being a minor psychoactive ingredient. Marijuana has several clinical applications, but it is more notably used for recreational purposes. Δ8-THC elicits similar but diminished psychotropic effects to Δ9-THC, and the popularity of consuming synthetically produced Δ8-THC is on the rise. The use of Δ9-THC and Δ8-THC has varying degrees of legality depending on one's location; thus it is important to distinguish between the two isomers. Both compounds are metabolized in humans to their corresponding carboxylic acids and then undergo glucuronidation. This method describes how to separate and quantify Δ9-THC-COOH and Δ8-THC-COOH in serum or urine using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and a deuterated internal standard.

Chemistry and Biological Activities of Cannflavins of the Cannabis Plant

Background: Throughout history, Cannabis has had a significant influence on human life as one of the earliest plants cultivated by humans. The plant was a source of fibers used by the oldest known civilizations. Cannabis was also used medicinally in China, India, and ancient Egypt. Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC), the main psychoactive compound in the plant was identified in 1964 followed by more than 125 cannabinoids. More than 30 flavonoids were isolated from the plant including the characteristic flavonoids called cannflavins, which are prenylated or geranylated flavones. Material and Methods: In this review, the methods of extraction, isolation, identification, biosynthesis, chemical synthesis, analysis and pharmacological activity of these flavonoids are described. Results: The biosynthetic routes of the cannflavins from phenylalanine and malonyl CoA as well as the microbial biotransformation are also discussed. Details of the chemical synthesis are illustrated as an alternative to the isolation from the plant materials along with other possible sources of obtaining cannflavins. Detailed methods discussing the analysis of flavonoids in cannabis are presented, including the techniques used for separation and detection. Finally, the various biological activities of cannflavins are reviewed along with the available molecular docking studies. Conclusion: Despite the low level of cannflavins in cannabis hamper their development as naturally derived products, efforts need to be put in place to develop high yield synthetic or biosynthetic protocols for their production in order for their development as pharmaceutical products.

Extraction of Active Compounds from Mixtures of Hemp (Cannabis sativa) with Plants of the Zingiberaceae Family

Hemp is probably one of the most studied plants for its health-promoting properties, with countless documented and patented extraction methods, but literature is scarce on the simultaneous extraction of mixture of raw materials. Hemp, along with other plant materials, could represent a potentially highly valuable source material with resulting reciprocal effects. In this study, hemp (Cannabis sativa) and three members of the Zingiberaceae family, ginger (Zingiber officinale), turmeric (Curcuma longa), and cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum), were extracted simultaneously, and their bioactive component values were investigated. Two extraction methods were used, namely ultrasound-assisted extraction with ethanol and supercritical fluid extraction with carbon dioxide. First, extracts were obtained from separate plant materials. Then, hemp was extracted in combination with ginger, turmeric, and cardamom in a 1:1 ratio. The extracts obtained were evaluated for their antioxidant activity and total phenolic content using UV/VIS spectrophotometry; cannabinoid content, 6-gingerol, and 6-shogaol were measured using liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS); volatile components such as 1,8-cineole, alpha-terpinyl acetate, linalool, and aR-turmerone were measured using gas chromatography with mass spectrometry (GC/MS).

Effect of Gamma Irradiation on Cannabinoid, Terpene, and Moisture Content of Cannabis Biomass

In recent years, cannabis has been proposed and promoted not only as a medicine for the treatment of a variety of illnesses, but also as an industrial crop for different purposes. Being an agricultural product, cannabis inflorescences may be contaminated by environmental pathogens at high concentrations, which might cause health problems if not controlled. Therefore, limits have to be placed on the levels of aerobic bacteria as well as yeast and mold. To ensure the safety of cannabis plant material and related products, a remediation process has to be put in place. Gamma irradiation is a sterilization process mainly used for pharmaceuticals, foods, cosmetics, agricultural, and herbal products including cannabis plant material. This study was designed to determine the effect of irradiation on the microbial count as well as on the chemical and physical profiles of the cannabis biomass, particularly cannabinoids, terpenes, and moisture content. The full cannabinoid profile was measured by GC/FID and HPLC analysis, while terpene profile and moisture content were determined using GC/MS and Loss on Drying (LoD) methods, respectively. Analyses were conducted on the samples before and after gamma irradiation. The results showed that the minimum and maximum doses were 15 and 20.8 KiloGray (KGY), respectively. Total Aerobic Microbial Count (TAMC) and Total Yeast and Mold Count (TYMC) were determined. The study showed that irradiation has no effect on the cannabinoids and little effect on terpenes and moisture content, but it did result in the virtual sterilization of the plant material, as evidenced by the low levels of bacterial and fungal colony-forming units (CFUs) < 10 after gamma irradiation.

Cannabis as a Source of Approved Drugs: A New Look at an Old Problem

Cannabis plants have been used in medicine since ancient times. They are well known for their anti-diabetic, anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective, anti-cancer, anti-oxidative, anti-microbial, anti-viral, and anti-fungal activities. A growing body of evidence indicates that targeting the endocannabinoid system and various other receptors with cannabinoid compounds holds great promise for addressing multiple medical conditions. There are two distinct avenues in the development of cannabinoid-based drugs. The first involves creating treatments directly based on the components of the cannabis plant. The second involves a singular molecule strategy, in which specific phytocannabinoids or newly discovered cannabinoids with therapeutic promise are pinpointed and synthesized for future pharmaceutical development and validation. Although the therapeutic potential of cannabis is enormous, few cannabis-related approved drugs exist, and this avenue warrants further investigation. With this in mind, we review here the medicinal properties of cannabis, its phytochemicals, approved drugs of natural and synthetic origin, pitfalls on the way to the widespread clinical use of cannabis, and additional applications of cannabis-related products.

An overview on synthetic and biological activities of cannabidiol (CBD) and its derivatives

(-)-Cannabidiol is a class of non-psychoactive plant cannabinoids derived from cannabis plants. Currently, Epidiolex (Cannabidiol) has been approved by the FDA for the treatment of two rare and severe forms of epilepsy related diseases, namely Lennox-Gastaut syndrome (LGS) and Dravet (DS). In addition, Cannabidiol and its structural analogues have received increasing attention due to their potential therapeutic effects such as neuroprotection, anti-epilepsy, anti-inflammation, anti-anxiety, and anti-cancer. Based on literature review, no comprehensive reviews on the synthesis of Cannabidiol and its derivatives have been found in recent years. Therefore, this article summarizes the published synthesis methods of Cannabidiol and the synthesis routes of Cannabidiol derivatives, and introduces the biological activities of some Cannabidiol analogues that have been studied extensively and have significant activities.

Validation and Quantitation of Fifteen Cannabinoids in Cannabis and Marketed Products Using High-Performance Liquid Chromatography-Ultraviolet/Photodiode Array Method

Background: Cannabis sativa is a psychoactive plant indigenous to Central and South Asia, traditionally used both for recreational and religious purposes, in addition to folk medicine. Cannabis is a rich source of natural compounds, the most important of which are commonly known as cannabinoids that cause a variety of effects through interaction with the endocannabinoid system. Materials and Methods: In this study, a high-performance liquid chromatography-ultraviolet/photodiode array (PDA) method was developed and validated for the analysis of 15 cannabinoids in cannabis plant materials and cannabis-based marketed products. These cannabinoids are cannabidivarinic acid, cannabidivarin, cannabidiolic acid, cannabigerolic acid, cannabigerol, cannabidiol, delta-9-tetrahydrocannabivarin, delta-9-tetrahydrocannabivarinic acid, cannabinol, delta-9-tetrahyrocannabinol, delta-8-tetrahyrocannabinol, cannabicyclol, cannabichromene, delta-9-tetrahyrocannabinolic acid A, and cannabichromenic acid. The separation was carried out using a reversed-phase Luna® C18(2) column and a mobile phase consisting of 75% acetonitrile and 0.1% formic acid in water. A PDA detector was used, and data were extracted at λ=220 nm. Principal component analysis of cannabis four varieties was performed. Results: The method was linear over the calibration range of 5-75 μg/mL with R2>0.999 for all cannabinoids. This method was sensitive and gave good baseline separation of all examined cannabinoids with limits of detection ranging between 0.2 and 1.6 μg/mL and limits of quantification ranging between 0.6 and 4.8 μg/mL. The average recoveries for all cannabinoids were between 81% and 104%. The measured repeatability and intermediate precisions (% relative standard deviation) in all varieties ranged from 0.35% to 9.84% and 1.11% to 5.26%, respectively. Conclusions: The proposed method is sensitive, selective, reproducible, and accurate. It can be applied for the simultaneous determination of these cannabinoids in the C. sativa biomass and cannabis-derived marketed products.

Absorbance-Transmittance Excitation Emission Matrix Method for Quantification of Major Cannabinoids and Corresponding Acids: A Rapid Alternative to Chromatography for Rapid Chemotype Discrimination of Cannabis sativa Varieties

Background: Phytocannabinoids naturally occur in the cannabis plant (Cannabis sativa), and Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD) predominate. There is a need for rapid inexpensive methods to quantify total THC (for statutory definition) and THC-CBD ratio (for classification into three chemotypes). This study explores the capabilities of a spectroscopic technique that combines ultraviolet-visible and fluorescence, absorbance-transmittance excitation emission matrix (A-TEEM). Methods: The A-TEEM technique classifies 49 dry flower extracts into three C. sativa chemotypes, and quantifies the total THC-CBD ratio, using validated gas chromatography (GC)-flame ionization (FID) and High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) methods for reference. Multivariate methods used are principal components analysis for a chemotype classification, extreme gradient boost (XGB) discriminant analysis (DA) to classify unknown samples by chemotype, and XGB regression to quantify total THC and CBD content using GC-FID and HPLC data on the same samples. Results: The A-TEEM technique provides robust classification of C. sativa samples, predicting chemotype classification, defined by THC-CBD content, of unknown samples with 100% accuracy. In addition, A-TEEM can quantify total THC and CBD levels relevant to statutory determination, with limit of quantifications (LOQs) of 0.061% (THC) and 0.059% (CBD), and high cross-validation (>0.99) and prediction (>0.99), using a GC-FID method for reference data; and LOQs of 0.026% (THC) and 0.080% (CBD) with high cross-validation (>0.98) and prediction (>0.98), using an HPLC method for reference data. A-TEEM is highly predictive in separately quantifying acid and neutral forms of THC and CBD with HPLC reference data. Conclusions: The A-TEEM technique provides a sensitive method for the qualitative and quantitative characterization of the major cannabinoids in solution, with LOQs comparable with GC-FID and HPLC, and high values of cross-validation and prediction. As a spectroscopic technique, it is rapid, with data acquisition <45 sec per measurement; sample preparation is simple, requiring only solvent extraction. A-TEEM has the sensitivity to resolve and quantify cannabinoids in solution based on their unique spectral characteristics. Discrimination of legal and illegal chemotypes can be rapidly verified using XGB DA, and quantitation of statutory levels of total THC and total CBD comparable with GC-FID and HPLC can be obtained using XBD regression.

Predicting binding between 55 cannabinoids and 4,799 biological targets by in silico methods

Recently, there has been an increase in cannabis-derived products being marketed as foods, dietary supplements, and other consumer products. Cannabis contains over a hundred cannabinoids, many of which have unknown physiological effects. Since there are large numbers of cannabinoids, and many are not commercially available for in vitro testing, an in silico tool (Chemotargets Clarity software) was used to predict binding between 55 cannabinoids and 4,799 biological targets (enzymes, ion channels, receptors, and transporters). This tool relied on quantitative structure activity relationships (QSAR), structural similarity, and other approaches to predict binding. From this screening, 827 cannabinoid-target binding pairs were predicted, which included 143 unique targets. Many cannabinoids sharing core structures (cannabinoid "types") had similar binding profiles, whereas most cannabinoids containing carboxylic acid groups were similar without regards to their core structure. For some of the binding predictions (43), in vitro binding data were available, and they agreed well with in silico binding data (median fourfold difference in binding concentrations). Finally, clinical adverse effects associated with 22 predicted targets were identified from an online database (Clarivate Off-X), providing important insights on potential human health hazards. Overall, in silico biological target predictions are a rapid means to identify potential hazards due to cannabinoid-target interactions, and the data can be used to prioritize subsequent in vitro and in vivo testing.

The Leu/Val6.51 Side Chain of Cannabinoid Receptors Regulates the Binding Mode of the Alkyl Chain of Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol

(-)-Δ9-trans-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), which is the principal psychoactive constituent of Cannabis, mediates its action by binding to two members of the G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) family: the cannabinoid CB1 (CB1R) and CB2 (CB2R) receptors. Molecular dynamics simulations showed that the pentyl chain of THC could adopts an I-shape conformation, filling an intracellular cavity between Phe3.36 and Trp6.48 for initial agonist-induced receptor activation, in CB1R but not in CB2R. This cavity opens to the five-carbon chain of THC by the conformational change of the γ-branched, flexible, Leu6.51 side chain of CB1R, which is not feasible by the β-branched, mode rigid, Val6.51 side chain of CB2R. In agreement with our computational results, THC could not decrease the forskolin-induced cAMP levels in cells expressing mutant CB1RL6.51V receptor but could activate the mutant CB2RV6.51L receptor as efficiently as wild-type CB1R. Additionally, JWH-133, a full CB2R agonist, contains a branched dimethyl moiety in the ligand chain that bridges Phe3.36 and Val6.51 for receptor activation. In this case, the substitution of Val6.51 to Leu in CB2R makes JWH-133 unable to activate CB2RV6.51L. In conclusion, our combined computational and experimental results have shown that the amino acid at position 6.51 is a key additional player in the initial mechanism of activation of GPCRs that recognize signaling molecules derived from lipid species.

The current role of cannabis and cannabinoids in health: A comprehensive review of their therapeutic potential

There has been an increased interest of the scientific community in cannabis and its constituents for therapeutic purposes. Although it is believed that cannabinoids can be effective for a few different conditions and syndromes, there are little objective data that clearly support the use of cannabis, cannabis extracts or even cannabidiol (CBD) oil. This review aims to explore the therapeutic potential of phytocannabinoids and synthetic cannabinoids for the treatment of several diseases. A broad search covering the past five years, was performed in PubMed and ClinicalTrial.gov databases, to identify papers focusing on the use of medical phytocannabinoids in terms of tolerability, efficacy and safety. Accordingly, there are preclinical data supporting the use of phytocannabinoids and synthetic cannabinoids for the management of neurological pathologies, acute and chronical pain, cancer, psychiatric disorders and chemotherapy-induced emetic symptoms. However, regarding the clinical trials, most of the collected data do not fully support the use of cannabinoids in the treatment of such conditions. Consequently, more studies are still needed to clarify ascertain if the use of these compounds is useful in the management of different pathologies.

Decoding the Postulated Entourage Effect of Medicinal Cannabis: What It Is and What It Isn't

The 'entourage effect' term was originally coined in a pre-clinical study observing endogenous bio-inactive metabolites potentiating the activity of a bioactive endocannabinoid. As a hypothetical afterthought, this was proposed to hold general relevance to the usage of products based on Cannabis sativa L. The term was later juxtaposed to polypharmacy pertaining to full-spectrum medicinal Cannabis products exerting an overall higher effect than the single compounds. Since the emergence of the term, a discussion of its pharmacological foundation and relevance has been ongoing. Advocates suggest that the 'entourage effect' is the reason many patients experience an overall better effect from full-spectrum products. Critics state that the term is unfounded and used primarily for marketing purposes in the Cannabis industry. This scoping review aims to segregate the primary research claiming as well as disputing the existence of the 'entourage effect' from a pharmacological perspective. The literature on this topic is in its infancy. Existing pre-clinical and clinical studies are in general based on simplistic methodologies and show contradictory findings, with the clinical data mostly relying on anecdotal and real-world evidence. We propose that the 'entourage effect' is explained by traditional pharmacological terms pertaining to other plant-based medicinal products and polypharmacy in general (e.g., synergistic interactions and bioenhancement).

Cultivar-dependent phenotypic and chemotypic responses of drug-type Cannabis sativa L. to polyploidization

Cannabis sativa L. is a plant with a wide range of potential medicinal applications. In recent years, polyploidy has gained attention as a potential strategy for rapidly improving C. sativa, which, unlike other modern crops, has not yet benefitted from this established biotechnological application. Currently, no reports on high THCA and CBDA drug-type polyploid cultivars have been published. Moreover, it still needs to be clarified if different cultivars react similarly to polyploidization. For these reasons, we set out to evaluate and compare the phenotype and chemotype of three high Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (THCA) and one high cannabidiolic acid (CBDA) drug-type cultivars in their diploid, triploid and tetraploid state through agronomic and metabolomic approaches. Our observations on plant morphology revealed a significant increase in plant height and leaf size with increasing ploidy levels in a cultivar-dependent manner. In contrast, cannabinoids were negatively affected by polyploidization, with the concentration of total cannabinoids, THCA, CBDA and cannabigerolic acid (CBGA) decreasing significantly in higher ploidy levels across all four cultivars. Headspace analysis of volatiles revealed that total volatile content decreased in triploids. On the other hand, tetraploids reacted differently depending on the cultivars. Two THCA dominant cultivars showed an increase in concentrations, while in the other two cultivars, concentrations decreased. Additionally, several rare compounds not present in diploids appeared in higher ploidy levels. Moreover, in one high THCA cultivar, a couple of elite tetraploid genotypes for cannabinoid and volatile production were identified, highlighting the role of cultivar and genotypic variability as an important factor in Cannabis sativa L. polyploids. Overall, our observations on plant morphology align with the giga phenotype observed in polyploids of other plant species. The decrease in cannabinoids and volatiles production in triploids have relevant implications regarding their commercial use. On the other hand, this study found that tetraploidization is a suitable approach to improve Cannabis sativa L. medicinal potential, although the response is cultivar and genotype-dependent. This work lays the ground for further improving, evaluating and harnessing Cannabis sativa L. chemical diversity by the breeding, biotechnological and pharmaceutical sectors.

Potency and safety analysis of hemp delta-9 products: the hemp vs. cannabis demarcation problem

BACKGROUND

Hemp-derived delta-9 tetrahydrocannabinol (∆9 THC) products are freely available for sale across much of the USA, but the federal legislation allowing their sale places only minimal requirements on companies. Products must contain no more than 0.3% ∆9 THC by dry weight, but no limit is placed on overall dosage and there is no requirement that products are tested. However, some states-such as Colorado-specifically prohibit products created by "chemically modifying" a natural hemp component.

METHODS

Fifty-three ∆9 THC products were ordered and submitted to InfiniteCAL laboratory for analysis. The lab analysis considered potency, the presence of impurities, and whether the ∆9 THC present was natural or converted from CBD. The presence of age verification, company-conducted testing, and warning labels was also considered.

RESULTS

While 96.2% of products were under the legal ∆9 THC limit, 66.0% differed from their stated dosage by more than 10%, and although 84.9% provided a lab report to customers, 71.1% of these did not check for impurities. Additionally, 49% of products converted CBD to THC to achieve their levels, and only 15.1% performed age verification at checkout.

CONCLUSIONS

Despite some positive findings, the results show that hemp ∆9 THC companies offer inaccurately labeled products that contain more THC than would be allowed in adult-use states. This raises serious issues around consumer safety, and consent when consuming intoxicating products. Steps to boost accountability for companies must be considered by either the industry or lawmakers if intoxicating hemp products are to remain on the market safely.

Trends in Illicit Cannabis Potency based on the Analysis of Law Enforcement Seizures in the Southern Area of Rome

Cannabis remains the most illicitly produced and consumed substance worldwide, and the average trans-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) content in cannabis products (marijuana, hashish) has increased over time. This paper presents data about THC concentration in cannabis resin samples seized by law enforcement from 2015 to 2022 in the southern area of Rome (Italy). From 2015 to 2022, more than 1000 hashish samples were analyzed; the average THC content was 18.0% and dramatically increased from 13.7% (2015) to 27.1% (2022). The potency of THC in some samples characterized by unusual shape and color was higher than 24% and, in a few cases, higher than 40%. The age group most involved in seizures of cannabis resin concerned males aged between 15 and 36 years old. The spread of this phenomenon increases the risk of adverse health outcomes. Many observational studies compare the increased cannabis potency with the onset of psychosis, depression, anxiety and cannabis use disorders (CUDs), mainly in young adults. THC-potency monitoring provides data that can be helpful to create a network of communication and interaction between universities, and legislative and public health institutions to support education, awareness and surveillance related to cannabis abuse.

Synthetic Pathways to Non-Psychotropic Phytocannabinoids as Promising Molecules to Develop Novel Antibiotics: A Review

Due to the rapid emergence of multi drug resistant (MDR) pathogens against which current antibiotics are no longer functioning, severe infections are becoming practically untreatable. Consequently, the discovery of new classes of effective antimicrobial agents with novel mechanism of action is becoming increasingly urgent. The bioactivity of Cannabis sativa, an herbaceous plant used for millennia for medicinal and recreational purposes, is mainly due to its content in phytocannabinoids (PCs). Among the 180 PCs detected, cannabidiol (CBD), Δ⁸ and Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabinols (Δ⁸-THC and Δ⁹-THC), cannabichromene (CBC), cannabigerol (CBG), cannabinol (CBN) and some of their acidic precursors have demonstrated from moderate to potent antibacterial effects against Gram-positive bacteria (MICs 0.5-8 µg/mL), including methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), epidemic MRSA (EMRSA), as well as fluoroquinolone and tetracycline-resistant strains. Particularly, the non-psychotropic CBG was also capable to inhibit MRSA biofilm formation, to eradicate even mature biofilms, and to rapidly eliminate MRSA persiter cells. In this scenario, CBG, as well as other minor non-psychotropic PCs, such as CBD, and CBC could represent promising compounds for developing novel antibiotics with high therapeutic potential. Anyway, further studies are necessary, needing abundant quantities of such PCs, scarcely provided naturally by Cannabis plants. Here, after an extensive overture on cannabinoids including their reported antimicrobial effects, aiming at easing the synthetic production of the necessary amounts of CBG, CBC and CBD for further studies, we have, for the first time, systematically reviewed the synthetic pathways utilized for their synthesis, reporting both reaction schemes and experimental details.

[Optimized chromatographic methods for the identification and quantification of terpenes in Cannabis sativa oil for medicinal use]

Introduction

Cannabis sativa is a plant species with numerous active principles, so the list of its therapeutic uses is expanding. In this sense, there are numerous evidences of the possible medicinal use of terpenes, as well as their synergism with cannabinoids (entourage effect). Thus, as more countries contemplate the legalization and authorization of medical cannabis, the number of cannabis extraction and analysis laboratories is increasing to meet the demand, requiring adequate analytical tools.

Methodology

In response to numerous inquiries from physicians, analytical laboratories and users, the PROBIEN chromatography laboratory has selected two methods for the analysis of terpenes in Cannabis oil by gas chromatography technique (GC-FID). The methods are described using HP-5 and Innowax columns. The external standard method was used for the quantitative determination of β-Pinene, Myrcene, p-Cymene, Limonene, Linalool, α-Terpineol, Nerol and Geraniol.

Results

good peak separation and reproducibility were observed, appropriate for the identification and quantification of the main terpenes in Cannabis extracts. The area/concentration ratio was linear in the range of 0.0005 to 2.0 mg/ml.

Main conclusion

The described methods allow the identification and quantification of the major terpenes in Cannabis oil for an adequate quality control.

Genome-Scale Metabolic Reconstruction, Non-Targeted LC-QTOF-MS Based Metabolomics Data, and Evaluation of Anticancer Activity of Cannabis sativa Leaf Extracts

Over the past decades, Colombia has suffered complex social problems related to illicit crops, including forced displacement, violence, and environmental damage, among other consequences for vulnerable populations. Considerable effort has been made in the regulation of illicit crops, predominantly Cannabis sativa, leading to advances such as the legalization of medical cannabis and its derivatives, the improvement of crops, and leaving an open window to the development of scientific knowledge to explore alternative uses. It is estimated that C. sativa can produce approximately 750 specialized secondary metabolites. Some of the most relevant due to their anticancer properties, besides cannabinoids, are monoterpenes, sesquiterpenoids, triterpenoids, essential oils, flavonoids, and phenolic compounds. However, despite the increase in scientific research on the subject, it is necessary to study the primary and secondary metabolism of the plant and to identify key pathways that explore its great metabolic potential. For this purpose, a genome-scale metabolic reconstruction of C. sativa is described and contextualized using LC-QTOF-MS metabolic data obtained from the leaf extract from plants grown in the region of Pesca-Boyaca, Colombia under greenhouse conditions at the Clever Leaves facility. A compartmentalized model with 2101 reactions and 1314 metabolites highlights pathways associated with fatty acid biosynthesis, steroids, and amino acids, along with the metabolism of purine, pyrimidine, glucose, starch, and sucrose. Key metabolites were identified through metabolomic data, such as neurine, cannabisativine, cannflavin A, palmitoleic acid, cannabinoids, geranylhydroquinone, and steroids. They were analyzed and integrated into the reconstruction, and their potential applications are discussed. Cytotoxicity assays revealed high anticancer activity against gastric adenocarcinoma (AGS), melanoma cells (A375), and lung carcinoma cells (A549), combined with negligible impact against healthy human skin cells.

Cannabis: a multifaceted plant with endless potentials

Cannabis sativa, also known as "hemp" or "weed," is a versatile plant with various uses in medicine, agriculture, food, and cosmetics. This review attempts to evaluate the available literature on the ecology, chemical composition, phytochemistry, pharmacology, traditional uses, industrial uses, and toxicology of Cannabis sativa. So far, 566 chemical compounds have been isolated from Cannabis, including 125 cannabinoids and 198 non-cannabinoids. The psychoactive and physiologically active part of the plant is a cannabinoid, mostly found in the flowers, but also present in smaller amounts in the leaves, stems, and seeds. Of all phytochemicals, terpenes form the largest composition in the plant. Pharmacological evidence reveals that the plants contain cannabinoids which exhibit potential as antioxidants, antibacterial agents, anticancer agents, and anti-inflammatory agents. Furthermore, the compounds in the plants have reported applications in the food and cosmetic industries. Significantly, Cannabis cultivation has a minimal negative impact on the environment in terms of cultivation. Most of the studies focused on the chemical make-up, phytochemistry, and pharmacological effects, but not much is known about the toxic effects. Overall, the Cannabis plant has enormous potential for biological and industrial uses, as well as traditional and other medicinal uses. However, further research is necessary to fully understand and explore the uses and beneficial properties of Cannabis sativa.

LC-MS Metabolomic Profiling of Five Types of Unrefined, Cold-Pressed Seed Oils to Identify Markers to Determine Oil Authenticity and to Test for Oil Adulteration

The authenticity of food products marketed as health-promoting foods-especially unrefined, cold-pressed seed oils-should be controlled to ensure their quality and safeguard consumers and patients. Metabolomic profiling using liquid chromatography coupled to quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LC-QTOF) was employed to identify authenticity markers for five types of unrefined, cold-pressed seed oils: black seed oil (Nigella sativa L.), pumpkin seed oil (Cucurbita pepo L.), evening primrose oil (Oenothera biennis L.), hemp oil (Cannabis sativa L.) and milk thistle oil (Silybum marianum). Of the 36 oil-specific markers detected, 10 were established for black seed oil, 8 for evening primrose seed oil, 7 for hemp seed oil, 4 for milk thistle seed oil and 7 for pumpkin seed oil. In addition, the influence of matrix variability on the oil-specific metabolic markers was examined by studying binary oil mixtures containing varying volume percentages of each tested oil and each of three potential adulterants: sunflower, rapeseed and sesame oil. The presence of oil-specific markers was confirmed in 7 commercial oil mix products. The identified 36 oil-specific metabolic markers proved useful for confirming the authenticity of the five target seed oils. The ability to detect adulterations of these oils with sunflower, rapeseed and sesame oil was demonstrated.

Cannabidiol Protects Dopaminergic-like Neurons against Paraquat- and Maneb-Induced Cell Death through Safeguarding DJ-1CYS106 and Caspase 3 Independently of Cannabinoid Receptors: Relevance in Parkinson's Disease

Parkinson's disease (PD), a progressive neurodegenerative movement disorder, has reached pandemic status worldwide. This neurologic disorder is caused primarily by the specific deterioration of dopaminergic (DAergic) neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc). Unfortunately, there are no therapeutic agents that slow or delay the disease progression. Herein, menstrual stromal cell-derived dopamine-like neurons (DALNs) intoxicated with paraquat (PQ²⁺)/maneb (MB) were used as a model system to elucidate the mechanism by which CBD protects the neural cell from apoptosis in vitro. According to immunofluorescence microscopy, flow cytometry, cell-free assay, and molecular docking analysis, we demonstrate that CBD offers protection to DALNs against PQ²⁺ (1 mM)/MB (50 μM)-induced oxidative stress (OS) by simultaneously (i) decreasing reactive oxygen species (ROS: O₂^•-, H₂O₂), (ii) maintaining the mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨ_m), (iii) directly binding to stress sensor protein DJ-1, thereby blunting its oxidation from DJ-1CYS¹⁰⁶-SH into DJ-1CYS¹⁰⁶-SO₃, and (iv) directly binding to pro-apoptotic protease protein caspase 3 (CASP3), thereby disengaging neuronal dismantling. Furthermore, the protective effect of CBD on DJ-1 and CASP3 was independent of CB1 and CB2 receptor signaling. CBD also re-established the Ca²⁺ influx in DALNs as a response to dopamine (DA) stimuli under PQ²⁺/MB exposure. Because of its powerful antioxidant and antiapoptotic effects, CBD offers potential therapeutic utility in the treatment of PD.

Effect of Genotype, Year, and Their Interaction on the Accumulation of Bioactive Compounds and the Antioxidant Activity in Industrial Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) Inflorescences

The phytochemical content and the antioxidant activity in the inflorescences of six industrial hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) genotypes, four monoecious (Codimono, Carmaleonte, Futura 75, and Santhica 27), and two dioecious (Fibrante and Carmagnola Selezionata), were assessed for three consecutive years from 2018 to 2020. The total phenolic content, total flavonoid content, and antioxidant activity were determined by spectrophotometric measurements, whereas HPLC and GC/MS were used to identify and quantify the phenolic compounds, terpenes, cannabinoids, tocopherols, and phytosterols. All the measured traits were significantly affected by genotype (G), cropping year (Y), and their interaction (G × Y), although the Y effect prevailed as a source of variation, ranging from 50.1% to 88.5% for all the metabolites except cannabinoids, which were equally affected by G, Y, and G × Y interaction (33.9%, 36.5%, and 21.4%, respectively). The dioecious genotypes presented a more constant performance over the three years compared to the monoecious genotypes, with the highest and most stable phytochemical content observed in the inflorescences of Fibrante, which was characterized by the highest levels of cannabidiol, α-humulene and β-caryophyllene, which may confer on the inflorescences of this genotype a great economic value due to the important pharmacological properties of these metabolites. Conversely, the inflorescences of Santhica 27 were characterized by the lowest accumulation of phytochemicals over the cropping years, with the notable exception of cannabigerol, a cannabinoid that exhibits a wide range of biological activities, which was found at its highest level in this genotype. Overall, these findings can be used by breeders in future programs aimed at the selection of new hemp genotypes with improved levels of phytochemicals in their inflorescences, which can provide better health and industrial benefits.

Therapeutic targeting of the tumor microenvironments with cannabinoids and their analogs: Update on clinical trials

Cancer is a major global public health concern that affects both industrialized and developing nations. Current cancer chemotherapeutic options are limited by side effects, but plant-derived alternatives and their derivatives offer the possibilities of enhanced treatment response and reduced side effects. A plethora of recently published articles have focused on treatments based on cannabinoids and cannabinoid analogs and reported that they positively affect healthy cell growth and reverse cancer-related abnormalities by targeting aberrant tumor microenvironments (TMEs), lowering tumorigenesis, preventing metastasis, and/or boosting the effectiveness of chemotherapy and radiotherapy. Furthermore, TME modulating systems are receiving much interest in the cancer immunotherapy field because it has been shown that TMEs have significant impacts on tumor progression, angiogenesis, invasion, migration, epithelial to mesenchymal transition, metastasis and development of drug resistance. Here, we have reviewed the effective role of cannabinoids, their analogs and cannabinoid nano formulations on the cellular components of TME (endothelial cells, pericytes, fibroblast and immune cells) and how efficiently it retards the progression of carcinogenesis is discussed. The article summarizes the existing research on the molecular mechanisms of cannabinoids regulation of the TME and finally highlights the human studies on cannabinoids' active interventional clinical trials. The conclusion outlines the need for future research involving clinical trials of cannabinoids to demonstrate their efficacy and activity as a treatment/prevention for various types of human malignancies.

Development and Validation of a GC-FID Method for the Quantitation of 20 Different Acidic and Neutral Cannabinoids

For decades, Cannabis sativa had been illegal to sell or consume around the world, including in the United States. However, in light of the recent 2018 Farm Bill and the legalization of hemp across the US, various cannabis preparations have flooded the market, making it essential to be able to quantitate the levels of the different acidic and neutral cannabinoids in C. sativa and to have a complete cannabinoid profile of the different chemovars of the cannabis plant. A GC-FID method was developed and validated for the analysis of 20 acidic and neutral cannabinoids as trimethylsilyl (TMS) derivatives. The analyzed cannabinoids include cannabidivarinic acid (CBDVA), cannabidiolic acid (CBDA), cannabinolic acid (CBNA), cannabielsoic acid (CBEA), cannabicyclolic acid (CBLA), cannabichromenic acid (CBCA), trans-Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabivarinic acid (Δ⁹-THCVA), trans-Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabinolic acid A (Δ⁹-THCAA), cannabigerolic acid (CBGA), cannabidiol (CBD), cannabicyclol (CBL), cannabidivarin (CBDV), trans-Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabivarin (THCV), cannabichromene (CBC), trans-Δ⁸-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ⁸-THC), trans-Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ⁹-THC), cannabigerol (CBG), cannabinol (CBN), cannabicitran (CBT), and cannabielsoin (CBE). The method limit of detection (LOD) was as low as 0.1 µg/mL, while the limit of quantitation ranged from 0.25 µg/mL to 0.5 µg/mL. The precision (%RSD) was < 10%, while trueness ranged from 90 - 107%. The developed method is simple, accurate, and sensitive for the quantitation of all 20 acidic and neutral cannabinoids. Finally, the proposed method was successfully applied to the quantitation of the cannabinoids in different cannabis chemovars grown at the University of Mississippi.

Chemical profiling of Cannabis sativa from eleven Tanzanian regions

The aim of this research was to investigate the chemical profiles of Cannabis sativa from 11 Tanzanian regions using preliminary tests as well as instrumental analyses with GC-MS and LC-MS. Generally, all the seized samples tested positive for the presence of (Δ⁹-THC. The preliminary test with Duquenois method followed by chloroform addition revealed the presence of Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ⁹-THC) in all the samples. GC-MS analyses of the samples revealed the presence of nine cannabinoids including Δ⁹-THC, Δ⁸-THC, cannabidivarol, cannabidiol, Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabivarin (Δ⁹-THCV), cannabichromene, cannabinol, caryophyllene, and cannabicouramaronone, whereas LC-MS chemical profiling revealed the presence 24 chemical substances, including 4 cannabinoids, 15 different types of drugs and 5 amino acids. The Pwani region had the highest percentage composition of Δ⁹-THC (13.45%), the main psychoactive ingredient of Cannabis sativa, followed by Arusha (10.92%) and Singida (10.08%). The sample from Kilimanjaro had the lowest percentage of Δ⁹-THC (6.72%). Apart from cannabinoids, the majority of other chemical substances were found in the Dar es Salaam region sample, which could be attributed to the fact that the city is the epicenter of business rather than the cultivation area, implying that the samples were obtained from different sources and blended as a single package.