Solubility, Antioxidation, and Oral Bioavailability Improvement of Mangiferin Microparticles Prepared Using the Supercritical Antisolvent Method

Research advances in Zein-based nano-delivery systems

Zein is the main vegetable protein from maize. In recent years, Zein has been widely used in pharmaceutical, agriculture, food, environmental protection, and other fields because it has excellent biocompatibility and biosafety. However, there is still a lack of systematic review and research on Zein-based nano-delivery systems. This paper systematically reviews preparation and modification methods of Zein-based nano-delivery systems, based on the basic properties of Zein. It discusses the preparation of Zein nanoparticles and the influencing factors in detail, as well as analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of different preparation methods and summarizing modification methods of Zein nanoparticles. This study provides a new idea for the research of Zein-based nano-delivery system and promotes its application.

Pharmaceutical Nanoparticles Formation and Their Physico-Chemical and Biomedical Properties

The use of medicinal substances in nanosized forms (nanoforms, nanoparticles) allows the therapeutic effectiveness of pharmaceutical preparations to be increased due to several factors: (1) the high specific surface area of nanomaterials, and (2) the high concentration of surface-active centers interacting with biological objects. In the case of drug nanoforms, even low concentrations of a bioactive substance can have a significant therapeutic effect on living organisms. These effects allow pharmacists to use lower doses of active components, consequently lowering the toxic side effects of pharmaceutical nanoform preparations. It is known that many drug substances that are currently in development are poorly soluble in water, so they have insufficient bioavailability. Converting them into nanoforms will increase their rate of dissolution, and the increased saturation solubility of drug nanocrystals also makes a significant contribution to their high therapeutic efficiency. Some physical and chemical methods can contribute to the formation of both pure drug nanoparticles and their ligand or of polymer-covered nanoforms, which are characterized by higher stability. This review describes the most commonly used methods for the preparation of nanoforms (nanoparticles) of different medicinal substances, paying close attention to modern supercritical and cryogenic technologies and the advantages and disadvantages of the described methods and techniques; moreover, the improvements in the physico-chemical and biomedical properties of the obtained medicinal nanoforms are also discussed.

Preparation and evaluation of antidiabetic activity of mangiferin-loaded solid lipid nanoparticles

This study aimed to develop and optimize mangiferin-loaded solid lipid nanoparticles (MG-SLNs) using the microemulsion technique and ultrasonication. The MG-SLNs were composed of Labrafil M 2130 CS, MG, ethanol, Tween 80, and water. The optimized MG-SLNs exhibited a particle size of 138.37 ± 3.39 nm, polydispersity index of 0.247 ± 0.023, entrapment efficiency of 84.37 ± 2.43 %, and zeta potential of 18.87 ± 2.42 mV. Drug release studies showed a two-fold increase in the release of MG from SLNs compared to the solution. Confocal images indicated deeper permeation of MG-SLNs, highlighting their potential. Molecular docking confirmed mangiferin's inhibitory activity against α-amylase, consistent with previous findings. In vitro studies showed that MG-SLNs inhibited α-amylase activity by 55.43 ± 6.11 %, α-glucosidase activity by 68.76 ± 3.14 %, and exhibited promising antidiabetic activities. In a rat model, MG-SLNs significantly and sustainably reduced blood glucose levels for up to 12 h. Total cholesterol and triglycerides decreased, while high-density lipoprotein cholesterol increased. Both MG-SOL and MG-SLNs reduced SGOT and SGPT levels, with MG-SLNs showing a more significant reduction in SGOT compared to MG-SOL. Overall, the biochemical results indicated that both formulations improved diabetes-associated alterations. In conclusion, the study suggests that loading MG in SLNs using the newly developed approach could be an efficient oral treatment for diabetes, offering sustained blood glucose reduction and positive effects on lipid profiles and liver enzymes.

Therapeutic potential of mangiferin in cancer: Unveiling regulatory pathways, mechanisms of action, and bioavailability enhancements - An updated review

Mangiferin (MGF) is a phenolic compound, which is a major source of MGF is the mango tree. MGF possesses some antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and cytoprotective properties, enabling it to play its role against various diseases such as diabetes, obesity, lung injuries, and cancer. The word "Cancer" depicts an uncontrolled and abnormal growth of cells. This review paper reveals MGF's therapeutic, curative and protective potential impact against lung, liver, ovarian, prostate, breast, stomach, and oral cancers. MGF is used in various types of research in the form of powder, liquid extract, intramuscular, intravenous, nanoparticles coated with gold, in the form of a solution, or in combination with other drugs to evaluate synergistic effects. Many studies showed that MGF is safe to use but has less bioavailability in the body and 0.111 mg/mL solubility in water. However, certain studies indicated that its bioavailability and retention time increased when taken in the form of nanoparticles and in combination with other drugs. MGF also increases the sensitivity of other drugs (i.e., cisplatin) resistant to tumors. MGF has different mechanisms of action for different cancers. It mainly targets enzymes, interleukins, tumor growth factors, signaling pathways, apoptotic proteins, and genes to inhibit the growth of tumors, volume, angiogenesis, cellular functionality, further progression, and movement to other areas of the body. Moreover, MGF increases apoptosis and body weight with no or fewer side effects on normal cells. MGF unveiled a novel gate toward the treatment of cancer. Further research and human trials are needed in this regard.

Genistein microparticles prepared by antisolvent recrystallization with low-speed homogenization process

To create genistein particles, a brand-new antisolvent recrystallization technique was employed. The response surface approach was utilized to optimize the single factor test findings, which were acquired via the preliminary tests. The ideal liquid-to-liquid ratio was 9, the solution concentration was 21 mg/mL, the nozzle diameter was 700 μm, the feed rate was 39.65 mL/min, and the homogenization rate was 1500 rpm. The smallest mean particle size measured was 202.782 nm. SEM was used to study the powder's morphology, while thermal analysis and infrared imaging were used to evaluate its characteristics. The homogeneous antisolvent recrystallization method-prepared GMP has a better dissolving rate and stronger antioxidant activity when compared to genistein powder. The antisolvent recrystallization approach used in this study, which uses low-speed homogenizing instead of conventional grinding and homogenizing, can successfully reduce particle size, improve bioavailability, and use less energy. This topic may thus be made popular because it has real-world applications.

Particle preparation of pharmaceutical compounds using supercritical antisolvent process: current status and future perspectives

The low aqueous solubility and subsequently slow dissolution rate, as well as the poor bioavailability of several active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs), are major challenges in the pharmaceutical industry. In this review, the particle engineering approaches using supercritical carbon dioxide (SC CO₂) as an antisolvent are critically reviewed. The different SC CO₂-based antisolvent processes, such as the gas antisolvent process (GAS), supercritical antisolvent process (SAS), and a solution-enhanced dispersion system (SEDS), are described. The effect of process parameters such as temperature, pressure, solute concentration, nozzle diameter, SC CO₂ flow rate, solvent type, and solution flow rate on the average particle size, particle size distribution, and particle morphology is discussed from the fundamental perspective of the SAS process. The applications of the SAS process in different formulation approaches such as solid dispersion, polymorphs, cocrystallization, inclusion complexation, and encapsulation to enhance the dissolution rate, solubility, and bioavailability are critically reviewed. This review highlights some areas where the SAS process has not been adequately explored yet. This review will be helpful to researchers working in this area or planning to explore SAS process to particle engineering approaches to tackle the challenge of low solubility and subsequently slow dissolution rate and poor bioavailability.

Microparticles in the Development and Improvement of Pharmaceutical Formulations: An Analysis of In Vitro and In Vivo Studies

Microparticulate systems such as microparticles, microspheres, microcapsules or any particle in a micrometer scale (usually of 1–1000 µm) are widely used as drug delivery systems, because they offer higher therapeutic and diagnostic performance compared to conventional drug delivery forms. These systems can be manufactured with many raw materials, especially polymers, most of which have been effective in improving the physicochemical properties and biological activities of active compounds. This review will focus on the in vivo and in vitro application in the last decade (2012 to 2022) of different active pharmaceutical ingredients microencapsulated in polymeric or lipid matrices, the main formulation factors (excipients and techniques) and mostly their biological activities, with the aim of introducing and discussing the potential applicability of microparticulate systems in the pharmaceutical field.

Phospholipid-Based Topical Nano-Hydrogel of Mangiferin: Enhanced Topical Delivery and Improved Dermatokinetics

Mangiferin is a herbal drug that has proven anticancer potential. Owing to its lower aqueous solubility and poor oral bioavailability, the full pharmacological potential of this bioactive drug has not fully been explored. In the present study, phospholipid-based microemulsion systems were developed to bypass oral delivery. The globule size of the developed nanocarriers was less than 150 nm and the drug entrapment was >75% with a drug loading ~25%. The developed system offered a controlled release pattern following the Fickian drug release. This enhanced mangiferin's in vitro anticancer activity by four-fold, the cellular uptake was observed to be improved by three-fold on the MCF-7 cells. Ex vivo dermatokinetic studies showed substantial topical bioavailability with a prolonged residence time. The findings provide a simple technique to administer mangiferin via a topical route promising a safer, topically bioavailable and effective treatment option for breast cancer. Such scalable carriers with immense topical delivery potential may provide a better option for present-day topical products of a conventional nature.

Supercritical Fluid Technologies for the Incorporation of Synthetic and Natural Active Compounds into Materials for Drug Formulation and Delivery

Various active compounds isolated from natural sources exhibit remarkable benefits, making them attractive for pharmaceutical and biomedical applications, such as antioxidant, antimicrobial, and anti-inflammatory activities, which contribute to the treatment of cardiovascular diseases, neurodegenerative disorders, various types of cancer, diabetes, and obesity. However, their major drawbacks are their reactivity, instability, relatively poor water solubility, and consequently low bioavailability. Synthetic drugs often face similar challenges associated with inadequate solubility or burst release in gastrointestinal media, despite being otherwise a safe and effective option for the treatment of numerous diseases. Therefore, drug-eluting pharmaceutical formulations have been of great importance over the years in efforts to improve the bioavailability of active compounds by increasing their solubility and achieving their controlled release in body media. This review highlights the success of the fabrication of micro- and nanoformulations using environmentally friendly supercritical fluid technologies for the processing and incorporation of active compounds. Several novel approaches, namely micronization to produce micro- and nano-sized particles, supercritical drying to produce aerogels, supercritical foaming, and supercritical solvent impregnation, are described in detail, along with the currently available drug delivery data for these formulations.

Interaction Mechanism of Mangiferin and Ovalbumin Based on Spectrofluorimetry and Molecular Docking

Mangiferin (MAG) is a kind of polyphenol with many bioactivities. However, its application in medicines and functional foods is restricted because of its poor aqueous solubility and stability. The construction of a MAG/protein complex is an effective way to solve this bottleneck. In this study, the interaction of MAG and ovalbumin (OVA) was systematically investigated by spectrofluorimetry, and their binding mode was clarified based on molecular docking. The results suggested that MAG could cause the static fluorescence quenching of OVA with the quenching constant ( Kq) of >2 × 1010 L/(mol·s). Their binding performance increased with increasing temperature, and the binding-site number ( n) was close to 1. The thermodynamic analysis indicated that the binding was a spontaneous process, which was mainly driven by hydrophobic force. During this process, there was no apparent change in the microenvironment surrounding the tyrosine and tryptophan residues of OVA. The molecular docking results demonstrated the hydrophobic interaction and hydrogen bonding in the complex, which well-confirmed the results of the fluorescence experiments.

Characterization of entrapment behavior of polyphenols in nanostructured lipid carriers and its effect on their antioxidative activity

Polyphenols are widely used as antioxidant agents to protect human health. Resveratrol, kaempferol, and quercetin have been reported to have potent antioxidant activity; however, these compounds have many problems related to their practical application, such as instability and insolubility. Thus, a nanostructured lipid carrier (NLC) was utilized as a drug delivery system (DDS) to overcome these limitations. This study investigated the particle stability, drug loading performance, and antioxidant activity of polyphenols-incorporated NLCs. The particle size and distribution were suitable for DDS applications, and all the samples demonstrated good stability after 2 months of storage. Based on Raman spectroscopy analysis, polyphenols were successfully encapsulated in NLCs. Quantitative high-performance liquid chromatography analysis indicated that NLCs could load resveratrol more than kaempferol and quercetin. In addition, NLCs have successfully improved all the antioxidant activity per unit concentration of polyphenol (specific antioxidant activity) compared to the free polyphenols. Quercetin-incorporated NLCs showed the highest specific antioxidant activity. This result is the opposite of entrapment efficiency and actual antioxidant activity, most likely influenced by the location of entrapped polyphenol molecules. As it was performed, NLCs are highly recommended to be applied as an antioxidant delivery system.

Second-Order Scattering Quenching in Fluorescence Spectra of Natural Humates as a Tracer of Formation Stable Supramolecular System for the Delivery of Poorly Soluble Antiviral Drugs on the Example of Mangiferin and Favipiravir

In the present work, the methods of dynamic light scattering and fluorescence spectroscopy were applied to study the optical properties of aqueous dilutions of the humic substances complex (HC) as a potential drug delivery system. The supramolecular structures in the humate solution were characterized as monodisperse systems of the submicron range with a tendency to decrease in particle size with a decrease in the dry matter concentration. The slightly alkaline medium (8.3) of the studied aqueous dilutions of HC causes the absence of a pronounced fluorescence maximum in the region from 400 to 500 nm. However, the presence of an analytically significant, inversely proportional to the concentration second-order scattering (SOS) signal at 2λ_ex = λ_em was shown. In the examples of the antiviral substances mangiferin and favipiravir, it was shown that the use of the humic complex as a drug carrier makes it possible to increase the solubility by several times and simultaneously obtain a system with a smaller particle size of the dispersed phase. It has been shown that HC can interact with mangiferin and favipiravir to form stable structures, which lead to a significant decrease in SOS intensities on HC SOS spectra. The scattering wavelengths, λ_ex/λ_em, were registered at 350 nm/750 nm for mangiferin and 365 nm/730 nm for favipiravir, respectively. The increments of the scattering intensities (I0/I) turned out to be proportional to the concentration of antiviral components in a certain range of concentrations.

Design of Nanotechnological Carriers for Ocular Delivery of Mangiferin: Preformulation Study

(1) Background: Mangiferin (MGN) is a natural compound, showing anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities for the potential treatment of eye diseases. The poor physicochemical features of MGN (low solubility and high instability) justify its nanoencapsulation into nanostructured lipid carriers (NLC) to improve its ocular bioavailability. (2) Methods: Firstly, MGN-NLC were prepared by the high shear homogenization coupled with the ultrasound (HSH−US) method. Finally, unloaded and MGN-loaded NLC were analyzed in terms of ocular tolerance. (3) Results: MGN-NLC showed good technological parameters suitable for ocular administration (particle size below 200 nm). The ORAC assay was performed to quantify the antioxidant activity of MGN, showing that the antioxidant activity of MGN-NLC (6494 ± 186 μM TE/g) was higher than that of the free compound (3521 ± 271 μM TE/g). This confirmed that the encapsulation of the drug was able to preserve and increase its activity. In ovo studies (HET-CAM) revealed that the formulation can be considered nonirritant. (4) Conclusions: Therefore, NLC systems are a promising approach for the ocular delivery of MGN.

Mangiferin: a review of dietary sources, absorption, metabolism, bioavailability, and safety

Mangiferin is a potential candidate for use in nutraceutical and functional food applications due to its numerous bioactivities. However, the low bioavailability of mangiferin is a major limitation for establishing efficacy for use. This review describes current information on known food sources and factors that influence mangiferin contents, absorption, and metabolism features, and recent progress that has come from research efforts to increase the bioavailability of mangiferin. We also list patents that targeted to enhance mangiferin bioavailability. Mangifera indica L. is the major dietary source for mangiferin, a xanthone that varies widely in different parts of the plant and is influenced by many factors that involve plant propagation and post-harvest processing. Mangiferin absorption occurs mostly in the small intestine by passive diffusion with varying absorption capacities in different segments of the gastrointestinal tract. Recent research has led to the development of novel technologies to encapsulate mangiferin in nano/microparticle carrier systems as well as generate mangiferin derivatives to improve solubility and bioavailability. Preclinical studies reported that mangiferin < 2000 mg/kg is generally nontoxic. The safety and the increase in bioavailability are key limiting factors for developing successful applications for mangiferin as a nutritional dietary supplement or nutraceutical.

Influence of extrusion process on the release of phenolic compounds from mango (Mangifera indica L.) bagasse-added confections and evaluation of their bioaccessibility, intestinal permeability, and antioxidant capacity

Extruded polyphenol-rich by-products like mango bagasse (MB) could be used to manufacture functional confections. However, few reports have assessed the extrusion impact on MB polyphenols within a food matrix. This research aimed to evaluate the impact of extrusion on the bioaccessibility, intestinal permeability, and antioxidant capacity of phenolic compounds (PC) from non-extruded and extruded MB-added confections (EMBC and MBC, respectively). The inhibition of 2,2-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS) and 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl radicals and in silico approaches were used to evaluate the antioxidant capacity. MBC displayed the highest gastric bioaccessibility (%) of xanthones and flavonoids, whereas selective release of gallic acid, mangiferin, and quercetin glucoside was shown for EMBC. Lower PC' apparent permeability coefficients were found in EMBC compared to MB (0.11 to 0.44-fold change, p < 0.05). EMBC displayed the highest antioxidant capacity by the DPPH method for the non-digestible fraction, being mangiferin the highest in silico contributor (-4 kcal/mol). Our results showed that the extrusion process helps release selective phenolics from MBC, which increases their bioaccessibility and intestinal permeability.

Supercritical fluid (SCF)-assisted fabrication of carrier-free drugs: An eco-friendly welcome to active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs)

Despite the success in developing various pharmaceutical formulations, most of the active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs)/drugs, according to the Biopharmaceutics Classification System (BCS), often suffer from various intrinsic limitations of solubility and permeability, substantially hindering their bioavailability in vivo. Regardless of the fact that the availability of different particle fabrication approaches (top-down and bottom-up) towards pharmaceutical manufacturing, the supercritical fluid (SCF) technology has emerged as one of the highly effective substitutes due to the environmentally benign nature and processing convenience, as well as the economically promising character of SCFs. The exceptional features of SCFs have endowed the fabrication of various APIs either solely or in combination with the compatible supramolecular species towards achieving improved drug delivery. Operating such APIs in high-pressure conditions often results in arbitrary-sized particulate forms, ranging from micron-sized to sub-micron/nano-sized particles. Comparatively, these SCF-processed particles offer enhanced tailorable physicochemical and morphological properties (size, shape, and surface), as well as improved performance efficacy (bioavailability and therapy) over the unprocessed APIs. Although the "carrier-based" delivery is practical among diverse delivery systems, the direct fabrication of APIs into suitable particulate forms, referred to as "carrier-free" delivery, has increased attention towards improving the bioavailability and conveying a high payload of the APIs. This review gives a comprehensive emphasis on the SCF-assisted fabrication of diverse APIs towards exploring their great potential in drug delivery. Initially, we discuss various challenges of drug delivery and particle fabrication approaches. Further, different supercritical carbon dioxide (SC-CO₂)-based fabrication approaches depending on the character of SCFs are explicitly described, highlighting their advantages and suitability in processing diverse APIs. Then, we provide detailed insights on various processing factors affecting the properties and morphology of SCF-processed APIs and their pharmaceutical applications, emphasizing their performance efficacy when administered through multiple routes of administration. Finally, we summarize this compilation with exciting perspectives based on the lessons learned so far and moving forward in terms of challenges and opportunities in the scale-up and clinical translation of these drugs using this innovative technology.

Pharmacokinetic and metabolomic analyses of Mangiferin calcium salt in rat models of type 2 diabetes and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease

Background

Non-alcoholic fatty liver is one of the most common comorbidities of diabetes. It can cause disturbance of glucose and lipid metabolism in the body, gradually develop into liver fibrosis, and even cause liver cirrhosis. Mangiferin has a variety of pharmacological activities, especially for the improvement of glycolipid metabolism and liver injury. However, its poor oral absorption and low bioavailability limit its further clinical development and application. The modification of mangiferin derivatives is the current research hotspot to solve this problem.

Methods

The plasma pharmacokinetic of mangiferin calcium salt (MCS) and mangiferin were monitored by HPLC. The urine metabolomics of MCS were conducted by UPLC-Q-TOF-MS.

Results

The pharmacokinetic parameters of MCS have been varied, and the oral absorption effect of MCS was better than mangiferin. Also MCS had a good therapeutic effect on type 2 diabetes and NAFLD rats by regulating glucose and lipid metabolism. Sixteen potential biomarkers had been identified based on metabolomics which were related to the corresponding pathways including Pantothenate and CoA biosynthesis, fatty acid biosynthesis, citric acid cycle, arginine biosynthesis, tryptophan metabolism, etc.

Conclusions

The present study validated the favorable pharmacokinetic profiles of MCS and the biochemical mechanisms of MCS in treating type 2 diabetes and NAFLD.

Supercritical Antisolvent Process for Pharmaceutical Applications: A Review

The supercritical antisolvent (SAS) technique has been widely employed in the biomedical field, including drug delivery, to obtain drug particles or polymer-based systems of nanometric or micrometric size. The primary purpose of producing SAS particles is to improve the treatment of different pathologies and to better the patient’s compliance. In this context, many active compounds have been micronized to enhance their dissolution rate and bioavailability. Aiming for more effective treatments with reduced side effects caused by drug overdose, the SAS polymer/active principle coprecipitation has mainly been proposed to offer an adequate drug release for specific therapy. The demand for new formulations with reduced side effects on the patient’s health is still growing; in this context, the SAS technique is a promising tool to solve existing issues in the biomedical field. This updated review on the use of the SAS process for clinical applications provides useful information about the achievements, the most effective polymeric carriers, and parameters, as well as future perspectives.

Deposition of CAP/Antioxidants Systems on Silica Particles Using the Supercritical Antisolvent Process

Supercritical carbon dioxide has been used to deposit co-precipitates of natural antioxidants with a polymer onto silica microparticles. The supercritical antisolvent process (SAS) was carried out with the antioxidants by introducing the silica microparticles into the precipitator vessel. Two different configurations were employed to pump the solution. In one configuration, the antioxidant and the polymer were dissolved and injected together through a nozzle. In the second configuration, the antioxidant and the polymer were dissolved in different solutions and sprayed through different nozzles. The use of operating conditions significantly above the critical point (180 bar and 323 K) led to the formation of composites made up of co-precipitates and silica. Delivery profiles showed that the presence of the polymer and the silica delayed release of the antioxidant into gastric media, thus protecting it and allowing its full delivery to the intestinal fluids to improve the effectiveness of the antioxidant.