Conjugation of Therapeutic PSD-95 Inhibitors to the Cell-Penetrating Peptide Tat Affects Blood-Brain Barrier Adherence, Uptake, and Permeation

In Vivo Interrogation of Cell-Penetrating Peptide Function: Accumulation in Tumors and the Potential as a Specific PET Probe

We aimed to evaluate the biodistribution and specificity of 68Ga-DOTA-TAT and RHO-TAT using MGC-803 and HT-29 tumor cells as well as tumor-xenografted nude mice and to demonstrate its application in positron emission tomography (PET) imaging. The in vitro evaluation of 68Ga-DOTA-TAT was assessed in MGC-803 and HT-29 cell lines, and the in vivo evaluation of 68Ga-DOTA-TAT was also performed in mice bearing MGC-803 or HT-29 tumors, respectively. Fluorescence microscopy was also employed to evaluate the specificity of RHO-TAT in vitro in MGC-803 and HT-29 cells as well as ex vivo in tumor slices of the corresponding tumor models. The in vivo imaging differences between 68Ga-DOTA-TAT and 18F-FDG in MGC-803 and HT-29 tumors were also studied. The biodistribution and micro-PET results demonstrated significant uptake of 68Ga-DOTA-TAT in non-FDG-avid MGC-803 tumors, whereas there was negligible uptake in FDG-avid HT-29 tumors. RHO-TAT showed superior fluorescence microscopy imaging effects in MGC-803 cells and tumor slices but not in HT-29 cells and tumor slices, which were consistent with the in vivo results. 68Ga-DOTA-TAT combined with 18F-FDG can be applied noninvasively in cancers with PET imaging for potential patient selection and stratification. We demonstrated a higher binding of 68Ga-DOTA-TAT and RHO-TAT to MGC-803 cells as well as to non-FDG-avid MGC-803 xenografted tumors and a lower binding to HT-29 cells and FDG-avid xenografted tumors. These results suggest that TAT has the potential to be a ligand for targeting certain tumors.

Nano Approaches to Nucleic Acid Delivery: Barriers, Solutions, and Current Landscape

Nucleic acid (NA) therapy holds tremendous potential for treating a wide range of genetic diseases by the delivery of therapeutic genes into target cells. However, significant challenges exist in safely and effectively delivering these genes to their intended locations. Viral vectors, though efficient, pose risks such as immunogenicity and mutagenesis. This has resulted in growing interest in non-viral, nanoparticle-based NA delivery systems. This review article describes various physiological barriers to NA delivery and explores nanoparticle-based NA delivery systems, including bioengineered nanoparticles, peptides, lipid nanoparticles, and polymeric nanoparticles, highlighting their unique features to overcome in vivo barriers for NA delivery. While these nanoparticle-based NA delivery systems offer a promising alternative to viral vectors, challenges related to cytotoxicity, reproducible synthesis, and cost need to be addressed. The current clinical landscape of NA delivery is also discussed, emphasizing the need for safer, scalable, and cost-effective solutions. Nanoparticles represent a promising future in NA therapy, with the possibility of developing clinically relevant, non-toxic, stable, and non-immunogenic delivery vehicles, paving the way for broader therapeutic applications and improved clinical outcomes.

Spotlight on HIV-derived TAT peptide as a molecular shuttle in drug delivery

HIV-derived TAT peptide, with a high penetration rate into cells and its nonimmunogenic and minimally toxic nature, is an attractive tool for enhancing the biodistribution of drugs and their systemic administration. Despite the presence of numerous promising preclinical investigations illustrating its capability to specifically target distinct tissues and deliver a diverse range of pharmacological agents, the efficacy of various clinical trials incorporating TAT has been impeded by several considerable obstacles. Hence, there is much need for an in-depth investigation concerning the application of TAT in drug delivery mechanisms. In this review, we have elucidated the structure of TAT and its utility in the proficient delivery of various types of bioactive molecules.

Tat-NR2B9c attenuates oxidative stress via inhibition of PSD95-NR2B-nNOS complex after subarachnoid hemorrhage in rats

Oxidative stress plays important roles in the pathogenesis of early brain injury (EBI) after subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH). Tat-NR2B9c has shown efficacy as a neuroprotective agent in several studies. Here, we identified the neuroprotective role of Tat-NR2B9c after SAH and its related mechanisms. The results showed that Tat-NR2B9c treatment attenuated oxidative stress, therefore alleviated neuronal apoptosis and neurological deficits after SAH. Tat-NR2B9c treatment could alleviate mitochondrial vacuolization induced by SAH. Compared to SAH + vehicle group, Tat-NR2B9c resulted in the decrease of Acetylated superoxide dismutase2 (Ac-SOD2), Bcl-2-associated X protein (Bax) and cleaved-caspase3 (CC3) protein expression, and the up-regulation of Sirtunin 3 (Sirt3) and Bcl-2 protein level. Moreover, Tat-NR2B9c attenuated excitotoxicity by inhibiting the interaction of PSD95-NR2B-nNOS. Our results demonstrated that Tat-NR2B9c inhibited oxidative stress via inhibition of PSD95-NR2B-nNOS complex formation after SAH. Tat-NR2B9c may serve as a potential treatment for SAH induced brain injury.

Engineered exosomes mediated targeted delivery of neuroprotective peptide NR2B9c for the treatment of traumatic brain injury

Neuroprotection is one of the core treatment strategies for brain injuries including traumatic brain injury (TBI). NR2B9c is a promising neuroprotective peptide but its clinical translation is limited because of poor brain penetrability. Exosomes are naturally occurring nanovesicles having therapeutic potential for TBI as well as an efficient drug delivery carrier to the brain. Here, we engineered exosomes with neuron targeting peptide rabies virus glycoprotein (RVG29) via bio-orthogonal click chemistry technique and loaded it with NR2B9c, developing RVG-ExoNR2B9c. RVG29 conjugated exosome had higher neuron targeting efficiency compared to naïve exosomes both in vivo and in vitro. RVG-ExoNR2B9c had great cytoprotective effect against oxygen glucose deprived Neuro2a cells. Intravenous administration of RVG-ExoNR2B9c significantly improved behavioral outcomes and reduced the lesion volume after TBI injury in a mice controlled cortical impact model. Due to their multifunctionality and significant efficacy, we anticipate that RVG-ExoNR2B9c have the potential to be translated both as therapeutic agent as well as cargo delivery system to the brain for the treatment of TBI.

Deciphering variations in the endocytic uptake of a cell-penetrating peptide: the crucial role of cell culture protocols

Delivery tools, including cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs), are often inefficient due to a combination of poor endocytosis and endosomal escape. Aspects that impact the delivery of CPPs are typically characterized using tissue culture models. One problem of using cell culture is that cell culture protocols have the potential to contribute to endosomal uptake and endosomal release of CPPs. Hence, a systematic study to identify which aspects of cell culturing techniques impact the endocytic uptake of a typical CPP, the TMR-TAT peptide (peptide sequence derived from HIV1-TAT with the N-terminus labeled with tetramethylrhodamine), was conducted. Aspects of cell culturing protocols previously found to generally modulate endocytosis, such as cell density, washing steps, and cell aging, did not affect TMR-TAT endocytosis. In contrast, cell dissociation methods, media, temperature, serum starvation, and media composition all contributed to changes in uptake. To establish a range of endocytosis achievable by different cell culture protocols, TMR-TAT uptake was compared among protocols. These protocols led to changes in uptake of more than 13-fold, indicating that differences in cell culturing techniques have a cumulative effect on CPP uptake. Taken together this study highlights how different protocols can influence the amount of endocytic uptake of TMR-TAT. Additionally, parameters that can be exploited to improve CPP accumulation in endosomes were identified. The protocols identified herein have the potential to be paired with other delivery enhancing strategies to improve overall delivery efficiency of CPPs.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10616-023-00591-1.

Development of an apolipoprotein E mimetic peptide-lipid conjugate for efficient brain delivery of liposomes

Liposomes are versatile carriers that can encapsulate various drugs; however, for delivery to the brain, they must be modified with a targeting ligand or other modifications to provide blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeability, while avoiding rapid clearance by reticuloendothelial systems through polyethylene glycol (PEG) modification. BBB-penetrating peptides act as brain-targeting ligands. In this study, to achieve efficient brain delivery of liposomes, we screened the functionality of eight BBB-penetrating peptides reported previously, based on high-throughput quantitative evaluation methods with in vitro BBB permeability evaluation system using Transwell, in situ brain perfusion system, and others. For apolipoprotein E mimetic tandem dimer peptide (ApoEdp), which showed the best brain-targeting and BBB permeability in the comparative evaluation of eight peptides, its lipid conjugate with serine-glycine (SG)5 spacer (ApoEdp-SG-lipid) was newly synthesized and ApoEdp-modified PEGylated liposomes were prepared. ApoEdp-modified PEGylated liposomes were effectively associated with human brain capillary endothelial cells via the ApoEdp sequence and permeated the membrane in an in vitro BBB model. Moreover, ApoEdp-modified PEGylated liposomes accumulated in the brain 3.9-fold higher than PEGylated liposomes in mice. In addition, the ability of ApoEdp-modified PEGylated liposomes to localize beyond the BBB into the brain parenchyma in mice was demonstrated via three-dimensional imaging with tissue clearing. These results suggest that ApoEdp-SG-lipid modification is an effective approach for endowing PEGylated liposomes with the brain-targeting ability and BBB permeability.

Bio-clickable, small extracellular vesicles-COCKTAIL therapy for ischemic stroke

Delivering large therapeutic molecules via the blood-brain barrier to treat ischemic stroke remains challenging. NR2B9c is a potent neuroprotective peptide but it's safe and targeted delivery to the brain requires an efficient, natural, and non-immunogenic delivery technique. Small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) have shown great potential as a non-immunogenic, natural cargo delivery system; however, tailoring of its inefficient brain targeting is desired. Here, we coupled rabies virus glycoprotein 29 with sEVs surface via bio-orthogonal click chemistry reactions, followed by loading of NR2B9c, ultimately generating stroke-specific therapeutic COCKTAIL (sEVs-COCKTAIL). Primary neurons and Neuro-2a cells were cultured for in vitro and transient middle cerebral artery occlusion model was used for in vivo studies to evaluate neuron targeting and anti-ischemic stroke potential of the sEVs-COCKTAIL. Bio-clickable sEVs were selectively taken up by neurons but not glial cells. In the in vitro ischemic stroke model of oxygen-glucose deprivation, the sEVs-COCKTAIL exhibited remarkable potential against reactive oxygen species and cellular apoptosis. In vivo studies further demonstrated the brain targeting and increased half-life of bio-clickable sEVs, delivering NR2B9c to the ischemic brain and reducing stroke injury. Treatment with the sEVs-COCKTAIL significantly increased behavioral recovery and reduced neuronal apoptosis after transient middle cerebral artery occlusion. NR2B9c was delivered to neurons binding to post-synaptic density protein-95, inhibiting N-methyl-d-Aspartate receptor-mediated over production of oxidative stress and mitigating protein B-cell lymphoma 2 and P38 proteins expression. Our results provide an efficient and biocompatible approach to a targeted delivery system, which is a promising modality for stroke therapy.

Development of Novel Paclitaxel-Loaded ZIF-8 Metal-Organic Framework Nanoparticles Modified with Peptide Dimers and an Evaluation of Its Inhibitory Effect against Prostate Cancer Cells

Prostate cancer (PC) is one of the common malignant tumors of the male genitourinary system. Here, we constructed PTX@ZIF-8, which is a metal-organic-framework-encapsulated drug delivery nanoparticle with paclitaxel (PTX) as a model drug, and further modified the synthesized peptide dimer (Di-PEG₂₀₀₀-COOH) onto the surface of PTX@ZIF-8 to prepare a nanotargeted drug delivery system (Di-PEG@PTX@ZIF-8) for the treatment of prostate cancer. This study investigated the morphology, particle size distribution, zeta potential, drug loading, encapsulation rate, stability, in vitro release behavior, and cytotoxicity of this targeted drug delivery system, and explored the uptake of Di-PEG@PTX@ZIF-8 by human prostate cancer Lncap cells at the in vitro cellular level, as well as the proliferation inhibition and promotion of apoptosis of Lncap cells by the composite nanoparticles. The results suggest that Di-PEG@PTX@ZIF-8, as a zeolitic imidazolate frameworks-8-loaded paclitaxel nanoparticle, has promising potential for the treatment of prostate cancer, which may provide a novel strategy for the delivery system targeting prostate cancer.

Differential Blood-Brain Barrier Transport and Cell Uptake of Cyclic Peptides In Vivo and In Vitro

The blood-brain barrier (BBB) poses major challenges to drug delivery to the CNS. SFTI-1 and kalata B1 are cyclic cell-penetrating peptides (cCPPs) with high potential to be used as scaffolds for drug delivery. We here studied their transport across the BBB and distribution within the brain to gauge the potential of these two cCPPs as scaffolds for CNS drugs. In a rat model, SFTI-1 exhibited, for a peptide, high extent of BBB transport with a partitioning of unbound SFTI-1 across the BBB, K_p,uu,brain, of 13%, while only 0.5% of kalata B1 equilibrated across the BBB. By contrast, kalata B1, but not SFTI-1, readily entered neural cells. SFTI-1, but not kalata B1, could be a potential CNS delivery scaffold for drugs directed to extracellular targets. These findings indicate that differences between the BBB transport and cellular uptake abilities of CPPs are crucial in the development of peptide scaffolds.

Selenomethionine as alternative label to the fluorophore TAMRA when exploiting cell-penetrating peptides as blood-brain barrier shuttles to better mimic the physicochemical properties of the non-labelled peptides

The cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) Tat and penetratin are frequently explored as shuttles for drug delivery across the blood-brain barrier (BBB). CPPs are often labelled with fluorophores for analytical purposes, with 5(6)-carboxytetramethylrhodamine (TAMRA) being a popular choice. However, TAMRA labelling affects the physicochemical properties of the resulting fluorophore-CPP construct when compared to the CPP alone. Selenomethionine (M^Se) may be introduced as alternative label, which, due to its small size and amino acid nature, likely results in minimal alterations of the peptide physicochemical properties. With this study we compared, head-to-head, the effect of M^Se and TAMRA labelling of Tat and penetratin with respect to their physicochemical properties, and investigated effects hereof on brain capillary endothelial cell (BCEC) models. TAMRA labelling positively affected the ability of the peptides to adhere to the cell membranes as well being internalized into the BCECs when compared to M^Se labelling. TAMRA labelling of penetratin added toxicity to the BCECs to a higher extent than TAMRA labelling of Tat, whereas M^Se labelling did not affect the cellular viability. Both TAMRA and M^Se labelling of penetratin decreased the barrier integrity of BCEC monolayers, but not to an extent that improved transport of the paracellular marker ¹⁴C-mannitol. In conclusion, M^Se labelling of Tat and penetratin adds minimal alterations to the physicochemical properties of these CPPs and their resulting effects on BCECs, and thereby represents a preferred alternative to TAMRA for peptide quantification purposes.

Canonical and Non-Canonical Antipsychotics' Dopamine-Related Mechanisms of Present and Next Generation Molecules: A Systematic Review on Translational Highlights for Treatment Response and Treatment-Resistant Schizophrenia

Schizophrenia is a severe psychiatric illness affecting almost 25 million people worldwide and is conceptualized as a disorder of synaptic plasticity and brain connectivity. Antipsychotics are the primary pharmacological treatment after more than sixty years after their introduction in therapy. Two findings hold true for all presently available antipsychotics. First, all antipsychotics occupy the dopamine D2 receptor (D2R) as an antagonist or partial agonist, even if with different affinity; second, D2R occupancy is the necessary and probably the sufficient mechanism for antipsychotic effect despite the complexity of antipsychotics' receptor profile. D2R occupancy is followed by coincident or divergent intracellular mechanisms, implying the contribution of cAMP regulation, β-arrestin recruitment, and phospholipase A activation, to quote some of the mechanisms considered canonical. However, in recent years, novel mechanisms related to dopamine function beyond or together with D2R occupancy have emerged. Among these potentially non-canonical mechanisms, the role of Na²⁺ channels at the dopamine at the presynaptic site, dopamine transporter (DAT) involvement as the main regulator of dopamine concentration at synaptic clefts, and the putative role of antipsychotics as chaperones for intracellular D2R sequestration, should be included. These mechanisms expand the fundamental role of dopamine in schizophrenia therapy and may have relevance to considering putatively new strategies for treatment-resistant schizophrenia (TRS), an extremely severe condition epidemiologically relevant and affecting almost 30% of schizophrenia patients. Here, we performed a critical evaluation of the role of antipsychotics in synaptic plasticity, focusing on their canonical and non-canonical mechanisms of action relevant to the treatment of schizophrenia and their subsequent implication for the pathophysiology and potential therapy of TRS.

Peptides as Pharmacological Carriers to the Brain: Promises, Shortcomings and Challenges

Central nervous system (CNS) diseases are among the most difficult to treat, mainly because the vast majority of the drugs fail to cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB) or to reach the brain at concentrations adequate to exert a pharmacological activity. The obstacle posed by the BBB has led to the in-depth study of strategies allowing the brain delivery of CNS-active drugs. Among the most promising strategies is the use of peptides addressed to the BBB. Peptides are versatile molecules that can be used to decorate nanoparticles or can be conjugated to drugs, with either a stable link or as pro-drugs. They have been used to deliver to the brain both small molecules and proteins, with applications in diverse therapeutic areas such as brain cancers, neurodegenerative diseases and imaging. Peptides can be generally classified as receptor-targeted, recognizing membrane proteins expressed by the BBB microvessels (e.g., Angiopep2, CDX, and iRGD), "cell-penetrating peptides" (CPPs; e.g. TAT_47-57, SynB1/3, and Penetratin), undergoing transcytosis through unspecific mechanisms, or those exploiting a mixed approach. The advantages of peptides have been extensively pointed out, but so far few studies have focused on the potential negative aspects. Indeed, despite having a generally good safety profile, some peptide conjugates may display toxicological characteristics distinct from those of the peptide itself, causing for instance antigenicity, cardiovascular alterations or hemolysis. Other shortcomings are the often brief lifetime in vivo, caused by the presence of peptidases, the vulnerability to endosomal/lysosomal degradation, and the frequently still insufficient attainable increase of brain drug levels, which remain below the therapeutically useful concentrations. The aim of this review is to analyze not only the successful and promising aspects of the use of peptides in brain targeting but also the problems posed by this strategy for drug delivery.

Biopolymer Nanoparticles for Nose-to-Brain Drug Delivery: A New Promising Approach for the Treatment of Neurological Diseases

Diseases affecting the central nervous system (CNS) are among the most disabling and the most difficult to cure due to the presence of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) which represents an impediment from a therapeutic and diagnostic point of view as it limits the entry of most drugs. The use of biocompatible polymer nanoparticles (NPs) as vehicles for targeted drug delivery to the brain arouses increasing interest. However, the route of administration of these vectors remains critical as the drug must be delivered without being degraded to achieve a therapeutic effect. An innovative approach for the administration of drugs to the brain using polymeric carriers is represented by the nose-to-brain (NtB) route which involves the administration of the therapeutic molecule through the neuro-olfactory epithelium of the nasal mucosa. Nasal administration is a non-invasive approach that allows the rapid transport of the drug directly to the brain and minimizes its systemic exposure. To date, many studies involve the use of polymer NPs for the NtB transport of drugs to the brain for the treatment of a whole series of disabling neurological diseases for which, as of today, there is no cure. In this review, various types of biodegradable polymer NPs for drug delivery to the brain through the NtB route are discussed and particular attention is devoted to the treatment of neurological diseases such as Glioblastoma and neurodegenerative diseases.

Shedding Light on the Blood-Brain Barrier Transport with Two-Photon Microscopy In Vivo

Treatment of brain disorders relies on efficient delivery of therapeutics to the brain, which is hindered by the blood-brain barrier (BBB). The work of Prof. Margareta Hammarlund-Udenaes was instrumental in understanding the principles of drug delivery to the brain and developing new tools to study it. Here, we show how some of the concepts developed in her research can be translated to in vivo 2-photon microscopy (2PM) studies of the BBB. We primarily focus on the methods developed in our laboratory to characterize the paracellular diffusion, adsorptive-mediated transcytosis, and receptor-mediated transcytosis of drug nanocarriers at the microscale, illustrating how 2PM can deepen our understanding of the mechanisms of drug delivery to the brain.

Intravenous administration of Tat-NR2B9c peptide, a PSD95 inhibitor, attenuates reinstatement of cocaine-seeking behavior in rats

Cocaine use disorder is a serious, chronic and relapsing disease of the nervous system, for which effective treatments do not yet exist. Recently, the role of the N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptor subunit GluN2B has been highlighted in cocaine abstinence followed by extinction training. Since the GluN2B subunit is stabilized at synaptic level by the interaction with its scaffolding protein PSD95, in this study we aimed at investigating efficacy of Tat-NR2B9c peptide, a PSD95 inhibitor, which disrupts the interaction of PSD95 with GluN2B, in the attenuation of cocaine seeking-behavior or cue-induced reinstatement. We found that Tat-NR2B9c, administered intravenously, attenuated the reinstatement of active lever presses induced by a priming dose of cocaine or by drug-associated conditioned stimuli. At the same time, the GluN2B/PSD95 complex levels were decreased in the ventral hippocampus of rats that previously self-administered cocaine injected with Tat-NR2B9c during cocaine- or cue-induced reinstatement. In conclusion, we here provide the first evidence showing that the disruption of the GluN2B/PSD95 complexes during cocaine abstinence followed by extinction training may represent a useful strategy to reduce reinstatement of cocaine-seeking behavior.

Highly cationic cell-penetrating peptides affect the barrier integrity and facilitates mannitol permeation in a human stem cell-based blood-brain barrier model

The blood-brain barrier (BBB) allows passive permeation of only a limited number of, primarily lipophilic, low-molecular weight drugs that obey the so-called "rule of CNS likeness". Therefore, novel strategies to facilitate drug delivery across the BBB are needed. Cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) enable delivery of various therapeutic cargoes into cells and may potentially serve as shuttles for delivery of brain-specific drugs across the BBB. The CPPs Tat_47-57 and penetratin are prototypical cationic CPPs, whereas apidaecin and oncocin belong to the group of proline-rich cationic antimicrobial peptides displaying CPP-like properties. The aim of the present study was to investigate the potential of Tat_47-57, penetratin, apidaecin, and oncocin for interaction with and permeation of the BBB in vitro. We also studied whether the CPPs facilitated permeation of the paracellular flux marker mannitol as well as the transcellular flux marker propranolol. The peptides were labelled with the fluorophore 6-TAMRA (T) for visualization and quantification purposes. CPP membrane-adherence, membrane-embedding, and cellular uptake as well as barrier-permeation were evaluated in murine brain capillary endothelial cells (bEND3) and human induced pluripotent stem cell-derived (Bioni-010c) brain capillary endothelial-like monolayers. The cationic and the proline-rich cationic CPPs were taken up into the Bioni-010c monolayers. T-Tat_47-57, T-apidaecin, and T-oncocin also permeated Bioni-010c monolayers, whereas T-penetratin did not. However, both T-Tat_47-57 and T-penetratin affected the barrier integrity to a degree that facilitated permeation of ¹⁴C-mannitol. These results may therefore pave the way for future CPP-mediated brain delivery of small drugs that do not obey the "rule of CNS likeness".

Targeting PDZ domains as potential treatment for viral infections, neurodegeneration and cancer

The interaction between proteins is a fundamental event for cellular life that is generally mediated by specialized protein domains or modules. PDZ domains are the largest class of protein-protein interaction modules, involved in several cellular pathways such as signal transduction, cell-cell junctions, cell polarity and adhesion, and protein trafficking. Because of that, dysregulation of PDZ domain function often causes the onset of pathologies, thus making this family of domains an interesting pharmaceutical target. In this review article we provide an overview of the structural and functional features of PDZ domains and their involvement in the cellular and molecular pathways at the basis of different human pathologies. We also discuss some of the strategies that have been developed with the final goal to hijack or inhibit the interaction of PDZ domains with their ligands. Because of the generally low binding selectivity of PDZ domain and the scarce efficiency of small molecules in inhibiting PDZ binding, this task resulted particularly difficult to pursue and still demands increasing experimental efforts in order to become completely feasible and successful in vivo.

Surface charge, glycocalyx, and blood-brain barrier function

The negative surface charge of brain microvessel endothelial cells is derived from the special composition of their membrane lipids and the thick endothelial surface glycocalyx. They are important elements of the unique defense systems of the blood-brain barrier. The tissue-specific properties, components, function and charge of the brain endothelial glycocalyx have only been studied in detail in the past 15 years. This review highlights the importance of the negative surface charge in the permeability of macromolecules and nanoparticles as well as in drug interactions. We discuss surface charge and glycoxalyx changes in pathologies related to the brain microvasculature and protective measures against glycocalyx shedding and damage. We present biophysical techniques, including a microfluidic chip device, to measure surface charge of living brain endothelial cells and imaging methods for visualization of surface charge and glycocalyx.