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Tian R, Sun J, Ye Y, Lu X, Wang W, Sun X. Ultrasensitive Aptasensor for α-Amatoxin Detection Based on the DNA Tetrahedral Nanostructure Triggering Rolling Circle Amplification and Signal Amplification. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2024; 72:10046-10054. [PMID: 38648503 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.4c00797] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/25/2024]
Abstract
Poisonous mushrooms containing α-amatoxin can be lethal, making it imperative to develop a rapid and sensitive detection method for α-amatoxin. Utilizing the DNA tetrahedral structure as its foundation, the aptamer allows controlled density and orientation. Consequently, we designed aptamer tetrahedral functionalized magnetic beads that specifically target α-amanitin to release complementary DNA (C-DNA) strands. These strands were then employed as primers to initiate rolling circle amplification (RCA) with fluorescent dyes. The combination of SYBR Green I detection probes facilitated the amplification of the detection signal, enhancing the detection sensitivity of the aptasensor. The calculated detection limit was determined to be 3 ng/mL, a magnitude lower than that of other aptasensors by 2 orders of magnitude. The aptasensor integrates the advantages of high sensitivity and specificity, offering a simple and reliable rapid detection method for α-amanitin analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Run Tian
- School of Food Science and Technology, International Joint Laboratory on Food Safety, Synergetic Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu 214122, P.R. China
- Yixing Institute of Food and Biotechnology Co., Ltd., Yixing 214200, China
| | - Jiadi Sun
- School of Food Science and Technology, International Joint Laboratory on Food Safety, Synergetic Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu 214122, P.R. China
- Yixing Institute of Food and Biotechnology Co., Ltd., Yixing 214200, China
| | - Yongli Ye
- School of Food Science and Technology, International Joint Laboratory on Food Safety, Synergetic Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu 214122, P.R. China
- Yixing Institute of Food and Biotechnology Co., Ltd., Yixing 214200, China
| | - Xin Lu
- School of Food Science and Technology, International Joint Laboratory on Food Safety, Synergetic Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu 214122, P.R. China
- Yixing Institute of Food and Biotechnology Co., Ltd., Yixing 214200, China
| | - Weiya Wang
- School of Food Science and Technology, International Joint Laboratory on Food Safety, Synergetic Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu 214122, P.R. China
- Yixing Institute of Food and Biotechnology Co., Ltd., Yixing 214200, China
| | - Xiulan Sun
- School of Food Science and Technology, International Joint Laboratory on Food Safety, Synergetic Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu 214122, P.R. China
- Yixing Institute of Food and Biotechnology Co., Ltd., Yixing 214200, China
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Rasooly R, Do P, He X, Hernlem B. A Sensitive, Cell-Based Assay for Measuring Low-Level Biological Activity of α-Amanitin. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:16402. [PMID: 38003593 PMCID: PMC10671307 DOI: 10.3390/ijms242216402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2023] [Revised: 11/10/2023] [Accepted: 11/14/2023] [Indexed: 11/26/2023] Open
Abstract
α-Amanitin is one of the primary toxins produced by the poisonous mushroom genus, Amanita. Because it is odorless and tasteless, it is an important cause of death from the consumption of misidentified mushrooms. To study the thermal stability of α-amanitin, novel cell-based assays were developed to measure the toxin's activity, based on the inhibition of RNA polymerase II by α-amanitin. First, an MTT-formazan cell viability assay was used to measure the biological activity of α-amanitin through the inhibition of cellular activity. This method can detect 10 μg/mL of α-amanitin in a time-dependent manner. Second, a more sensitive quantitative PCR approach was developed to examine its inhibition of viral replication. The new RT-qPCR assay enabled the detection of 100 ng/mL. At this level, α-amanitin still significantly reduced adenovirus transcription. Third, a simpler GFP expression-based assay was developed with an equal sensitivity to the RT-qPCR assay. With this assay, aqueous α-amanitin heated at 90 °C for 16 h or treated in the microwave for 3 min retained its biological activity when tested in HEK293 cells, but a slight reduction was observed when tested in Vero cells. Beyond detecting the activity of α-amanitin, the new method has a potential application for detecting the activity of other toxins that are RNA polymerase inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Reuven Rasooly
- Foodborne Toxin Detection & Prevention Research Unit, Western Regional Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Albany, CA 94710, USA; (P.D.); (X.H.); (B.H.)
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Barbosa I, Domingues C, Ramos F, Barbosa RM. Analytical methods for amatoxins: A comprehensive review. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2023; 232:115421. [PMID: 37146495 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2023.115421] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2023] [Revised: 04/22/2023] [Accepted: 04/24/2023] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
Amatoxins are toxic bicyclic octapeptides found in certain wild mushroom species, particularly Amanita phalloides. These mushrooms contain predominantly α- and β-amanitin, which can lead to severe health risks for humans and animals if ingested. Rapid and accurate identification of these toxins in mushroom and biological samples is crucial for diagnosing and treating mushroom poisoning. Analytical methods for the determination of amatoxins are critical to ensure food safety and prompt medical treatment. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the research literature on the determination of amatoxins in clinical specimens, biological and mushroom samples. We discuss the physicochemical properties of toxins, highlighting their influence on the choice of the analytical method and the importance of sample preparation, particularly solid-phase extraction with cartridges. Chromatographic methods are emphasised with a focus on liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry as one of the most relevant analytical method for the determination of amatoxins in complex matrices. Furthermore, current trends and future perspectives in amatoxin detection are also suggested.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabel Barbosa
- University of Coimbra, Faculty of Pharmacy, Azinhaga de Santa Comba, 3000-548, Coimbra, Portugal.
| | - Cátia Domingues
- University of Coimbra, Faculty of Pharmacy, Azinhaga de Santa Comba, 3000-548, Coimbra, Portugal; REQUIMTE/LAQV, R. D. Manuel II, Apartado, Oporto 55142, Portugal; University of Coimbra, Faculty of Medicine, Institute for Clinical and Biomedical Research (iCBR) area of Environment Genetics and Oncobiology (CIMAGO), 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Fernando Ramos
- University of Coimbra, Faculty of Pharmacy, Azinhaga de Santa Comba, 3000-548, Coimbra, Portugal; REQUIMTE/LAQV, R. D. Manuel II, Apartado, Oporto 55142, Portugal
| | - Rui M Barbosa
- University of Coimbra, Faculty of Pharmacy, Azinhaga de Santa Comba, 3000-548, Coimbra, Portugal; University of Coimbra, Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, Rua Larga, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal
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Liang Y, Zhou A, Bever CS, Cheng LW, Yoon JY. Smartphone-based paper microfluidic competitive immunoassay for the detection of α-amanitin from mushrooms. Mikrochim Acta 2022; 189:322. [PMID: 35932340 DOI: 10.1007/s00604-022-05407-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2022] [Accepted: 07/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
α-Amanitin is often considered the most poisonous mushroom toxin produced by various mushroom species, which are hard to identify from edible, non-toxic mushrooms. Conventional detection methods require expensive and bulky equipment or fail to meet high analytical sensitivity. We developed a smartphone-based fluorescence microscope platform to detect α-amanitin from dry mushroom tissues. Antibody-nanoparticle conjugates were captured by immobilized antigen-hapten conjugates while competing with the free analytes in the sample. Captured fluorescent nanoparticles were excited at 460 nm and imaged at 500 nm. The pixel numbers of such nanoparticles in the test zone were counted, showing a decreasing trend with increasing analyte concentration. The detection method exhibited a low detection limit (1 pg/mL), high specificity, and selectivity, allowing us to utilize a simple rinsing for toxin extraction and avoiding the need for high-speed centrifugation. In addition, this assay's short response time and portable features enable field detection of α-amanitin from amanitin-producing mushrooms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Liang
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - Avory Zhou
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - Candace S Bever
- Foodborne Toxin Detection and Prevention Research Unit, Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Western Regional Research Center, Albany, CA, USA
| | - Luisa W Cheng
- Foodborne Toxin Detection and Prevention Research Unit, Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Western Regional Research Center, Albany, CA, USA
| | - Jeong-Yeol Yoon
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA. .,Department of Biomedical Engineering, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA.
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Patra A, Mukherjee AK. Mushroom mycetism – A neglected and challenging medical emergency in the Indian subcontinent: A road map for its prevention and treatment. Toxicon 2022; 217:56-77. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2022.07.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2022] [Revised: 07/22/2022] [Accepted: 07/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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Ultrasensitive paper sensor for simultaneous detection of alpha-amanitin and beta-amanitin by the production of monoclonal antibodies. Food Chem 2022; 396:133660. [PMID: 35839720 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2022.133660] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2022] [Revised: 06/07/2022] [Accepted: 07/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Amanitin (AMA) is responsible for human fatalities after ingestion of poisonous mushrooms, thus, a rapid and accurate detection method is urgently needed. Here, gold nanoparticle-based immunosensor with monoclonal antibody against AMA was constructed for rapid detection of alpha- and beta-amanitin (α- and β-AMA) in mushroom, serum and urine samples. Under optimized conditions, the visual limits of detection (vLOD) and calculated LOD for α-AMA and β-AMA in mushroom were 10 ng/g, 20 ng/g, and 0.1 ng/g, 0.2 ng/g, respectively. Analysis of wild mushroom samples was also performed using a strip scan reader in the 10 min range. Furthermore, in mushrooms containing amatoxins results were confirmed and compared with those determined by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. Thus, this immunosensor provided a useful monitoring tool for rapid detection and screening of mushroom samples and in serum and urine from subjects who accidentally consumed AMA-containing mushrooms.
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Wennig R, Eyer F, Schaper A, Zilker T, Andresen-Streichert H. Mushroom Poisoning. DEUTSCHES ARZTEBLATT INTERNATIONAL 2021; 117:701-708. [PMID: 33559585 DOI: 10.3238/arztebl.2020.0701] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2020] [Revised: 03/03/2020] [Accepted: 09/17/2020] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Poisonous mushrooms are eaten by mushroom hunters out of ignorance, after misidentification as edible mushrooms, or as a psychoactive drug. Mushroom poisoning commonly leads to consultation with a poison information center and to hospitalization. METHODS This review is based on pertinent publications about the syndromes, toxins, and diagnostic modalities that are presented here, which were retrieved by a selective search in PubMed. It is additionally based on the authors' longstanding experience in the diagnosis and treatment of mushroom intoxication, expert consultation in suspected cases, macroscopic identification of wild mushrooms, and analytic techniques. RESULTS A distinction is usually drawn between mushroom poisoning with a short latency of less than six hours, presenting with a gastrointestinal syndrome whose course is usually relatively harmless, and cases with a longer latency of six to 24 hours or more, whose course can be life-threatening (e.g., phalloides, gyromitra, orellanus, and rhabdomyolysis syndrome). The DRG diagnosis data for Germany over the period 2000-2018 include a total of 4412 hospitalizations and 22 deaths due to the toxic effects of mushroom consumption. 90% of the fatalities were due to the death cap mushroom (amatoxins). Gastrointestinal syndromes due to mushroom consumption can be caused not only by poisonous mushrooms, but also by the eating of microbially spoiled, raw, or inadequately cooked mushrooms, or by excessively copious or frequent mushroom consumption. CONCLUSION There are few analytic techniques available other than the qualitative demonstration of amatoxins. Thus, the diagnosis is generally made on the basis of the clinical manifestations and their latency, along with meticulous history-taking, assisted by a mushroom expert, about the type(s) of mushroom that were consumed and the manner of their preparation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Wennig
- Luxembourg: Prof. Dr. Robert Wennig (formerly Laboratoire National de Santé- Toxicologie, Université du Luxembourg-Campus Limpertsberg); Department of Clinical Toxicology & Poison Control Center Munich, Klinikum rechts der Isar, School of Medicine, Technical University of Munich; GIZ-Nord Poisons Centre,Göttingen University Hospital Faculty of Medicine and University Hospital Cologne and Department of Forensic Toxicology,University Hospital Cologne
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Danielak D, Banach G, Walaszczyk J, Romański M, Bawiec M, Paszkowska J, Zielińska M, Sczodrok J, Wiater M, Hoc D, Kołodziej B, Garbacz G. A novel open source tool for ELISA result analysis. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2020; 189:113415. [PMID: 32574997 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2020.113415] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2020] [Revised: 06/01/2020] [Accepted: 06/03/2020] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
ELISA has become a standard analytical tool in the numerous branches of science and industry. Processing of the ELISA results may be a multistep process, often requiring a prior adaptation, using proprietary software, or exporting the results into external internet platforms. It may be problematic in the light of good documentation practices and maintaining good data integrity. In this paper, we present the development and application of the ELISA Tool software. The program is based on a Python scripting programming language and is available under an open-source license. The ELISA Tool allows users to fully control and validate the calculation procedure through a user-friendly graphical user interface. The modular architecture of the software allows its application in other information technology (IT) projects used for data processing in research laboratories. We successfully applied the ELISA Tool for the analysis of real-life samples. The ELISA Tool allowed import of the measurement data, an approximation of the calibration curves with two different algorithms, exploration and diagnostics of the model fit, and generation of the final report with the calculations while maintaining the raw data file unchanged. We report here for the first time the implementation of the idea of full control over data processing, from measured raw data to the final report. We obtained a transparent, open, registered system of data processing control, independent of third parties. The modular and flexible architecture of the created software encourages its further development following the individual demands of the users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dorota Danielak
- Department of Physical Pharmacy and Pharmacokinetics, Poznan University of Medical Sciences, 6 Święcickiego St., 60-781 Poznań, Poland.
| | - Grzegorz Banach
- Physiolution Polska, 74 Piłsudskiego St., 50-020 Wrocław, Poland.
| | - Juliusz Walaszczyk
- Wrocław University of Science and Technology, Wybrzeże Wyspianskiego 27, 50-370 Wrocław, Poland.
| | - Michal Romański
- Department of Physical Pharmacy and Pharmacokinetics, Poznan University of Medical Sciences, 6 Święcickiego St., 60-781 Poznań, Poland.
| | - Marek Bawiec
- Wrocław University of Science and Technology, Wybrzeże Wyspianskiego 27, 50-370 Wrocław, Poland.
| | | | - Monika Zielińska
- Institute of Chemical Technology and Engineering, Poznan University of Technology, 4 Berdychowo St., 60-965 Poznań, Poland.
| | - Jaroslaw Sczodrok
- Physiolution GmbH, Walther-Rathenau-Strasse 49a, 17489 Greifswald, Germany.
| | - Marcela Wiater
- Physiolution Polska, 74 Piłsudskiego St., 50-020 Wrocław, Poland.
| | - Dagmara Hoc
- Physiolution Polska, 74 Piłsudskiego St., 50-020 Wrocław, Poland.
| | | | - Grzegorz Garbacz
- Physiolution GmbH, Walther-Rathenau-Strasse 49a, 17489 Greifswald, Germany.
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Lateral flow immunoassay (LFIA) for the detection of lethal amatoxins from mushrooms. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0231781. [PMID: 32302363 PMCID: PMC7164595 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0231781] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2020] [Accepted: 03/31/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The mushroom poison that causes the most deaths is the class of toxins known as amatoxins. Current methods to sensitively and selectively detect these toxins are limited by the need for expensive equipment, or they lack accuracy due to cross-reactivity with other chemicals found in mushrooms. In this work, we report the development of a competition-based lateral flow immunoassay (LFIA) for the rapid, portable, selective, and sensitive detection of amatoxins. Our assay clearly indicates the presence of 10 ng/mL of α-AMA or γ-AMA and the method including extraction and detection can be completed in approximately 10 minutes. The test can be easily read by eye and has a presumed shelf-life of at least 1 year. From testing 110 wild mushrooms, the LFIA identified 6 out of 6 species that were known to contain amatoxins. Other poisonous mushrooms known not to contain amatoxins tested negative by LFIA. This LFIA can be used to quickly identify amatoxin-containing mushrooms.
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Bever CS, Swanson KD, Hamelin EI, Filigenzi M, Poppenga RH, Kaae J, Cheng LW, Stanker LH. Rapid, Sensitive, and Accurate Point-of-Care Detection of Lethal Amatoxins in Urine. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:E123. [PMID: 32075251 PMCID: PMC7076753 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12020123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2020] [Revised: 02/08/2020] [Accepted: 02/12/2020] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Globally, mushroom poisonings cause about 100 human deaths each year, with thousands of people requiring medical assistance. Dogs are also susceptible to mushroom poisonings and require medical assistance. Cyclopeptides, and more specifically amanitins (or amatoxins, here), are the mushroom poison that causes the majority of these deaths. Current methods (predominantly chromatographic, as well as antibody-based) of detecting amatoxins are time-consuming and require expensive equipment. In this work, we demonstrate the utility of the lateral flow immunoassay (LFIA) for the rapid detection of amatoxins in urine samples. The LFIA detects as little as 10 ng/mL of α-amanitin (α-AMA) or γ-AMA, and 100 ng/mL of β-AMA in urine matrices. To demonstrate application of this LFIA for urine analysis, this study examined fortified human urine samples and urine collected from exposed dogs. Urine is sampled directly without the need for any pretreatment, detection from urine is completed in 10 min, and the results are read by eye, without the need for specialized equipment. Analysis of both fortified human urine samples and urine samples collected from intoxicated dogs using the LFIA correlated well with liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Candace S. Bever
- Foodborne Toxin Detection and Prevention Research Unit, Western Regional Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, 800 Buchanan Street, Albany, CA 94710, USA; (C.S.B.); (L.H.S.)
| | - Kenneth D. Swanson
- Division of Laboratory Sciences, National Center for Environmental Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA; (K.D.S.); (E.I.H.)
| | - Elizabeth I. Hamelin
- Division of Laboratory Sciences, National Center for Environmental Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA; (K.D.S.); (E.I.H.)
| | - Michael Filigenzi
- California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory System, University of California, 620 West Health Sciences Drive, Davis, CA 95616, USA; (M.F.); (R.H.P.)
| | - Robert H. Poppenga
- California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory System, University of California, 620 West Health Sciences Drive, Davis, CA 95616, USA; (M.F.); (R.H.P.)
| | - Jennifer Kaae
- Pet Emergency and Specialty Center of Marin, 901 E. Francisco Blvd, San Rafael, CA 94901, USA;
| | - Luisa W. Cheng
- Foodborne Toxin Detection and Prevention Research Unit, Western Regional Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, 800 Buchanan Street, Albany, CA 94710, USA; (C.S.B.); (L.H.S.)
| | - Larry H. Stanker
- Foodborne Toxin Detection and Prevention Research Unit, Western Regional Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, 800 Buchanan Street, Albany, CA 94710, USA; (C.S.B.); (L.H.S.)
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Bever CS, Hnasko RM, Cheng LW, Stanker LH. A Rapid Extraction Method Combined with a Monoclonal Antibody-Based Immunoassay for the Detection of Amatoxins. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:toxins11120724. [PMID: 31835792 PMCID: PMC6950293 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11120724] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2019] [Revised: 12/05/2019] [Accepted: 12/09/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Amatoxins (AMAs) are lethal toxins found in a variety of mushroom species. Detection methods are needed to determine the occurrence of AMAs in mushroom species suspected in mushroom poisonings. In this manuscript, we report the generation of novel monoclonal antibodies (mAbs, AMA9G3 and AMA9C12) and the development of a competitive, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (cELISA) that is sensitive at 1 ng mL−1 and shows selectivity for α-amanitin (α-AMA) and γ-amanitin (γ-AMA), and less for β-amanitin (β-AMA). In order to decrease the overall time needed for analysis, the extraction procedure for mushrooms was also simplified. A rapid (1 min) extraction procedure of AMAs using solvents as simple as water alone was successfully demonstrated using Amanita mushrooms. Together, the extraction method and the mAb-based ELISA represent a simple and rapid method that readily detects AMAs extracted from mushroom samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Candace S. Bever
- Foodborne Toxin Detection and Prevention Unit, Western Regional Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, 800 Buchanan Street, Albany, CA 94710, USA
| | - Robert M. Hnasko
- Produce Safety and Microbiology Unit, Western Regional Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, 800 Buchanan Street, Albany, CA 94710, USA
| | - Luisa W. Cheng
- Foodborne Toxin Detection and Prevention Unit, Western Regional Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, 800 Buchanan Street, Albany, CA 94710, USA
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-510-559-6337
| | - Larry H. Stanker
- Foodborne Toxin Detection and Prevention Unit, Western Regional Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, 800 Buchanan Street, Albany, CA 94710, USA
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