Mycotoxins and the Enteric Nervous System

Cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript (CART) peptide-positive neuron populations in the enteric nervous system of the porcine descending colon depend on age and gender

The enteric nervous system (ENS) is a complex structure located in the wall of the gastrointestinal tract. One of the less-known active substances found in the ENS is cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript peptide (CART). It is known that CART-positive enteric neurons take part in the reactions to pathological stimuli, but knowledge of physiological stimuli-dependent changes in their population is extremely limited. The aim of the present study was to investigate the age- and gender-dependent diversities in the distribution of CART-positive neurons in the porcine colonic ENS using the double immunofluorescence technique. The obtained results have shown that age affects the number of CART-positive neurons in the colonic ENS and the character and intensity of age-caused changes depend on the type of the enteric plexus, and the most visible changes have been noted in the myenteric plexus in which the percentage of CART-positive neurons amounted to 22.3 ± 0.2% in young females, 20.7 ± 0.4% in young males, 23.7 ± 0.2% in adult females and 25.8 ± 01% in adult males. Moreover, during the present study, sex-dependent diversities in the percentage of CART-positive neurons were found, especially in adult animals. The obtained results suggest that CART in the ENS takes part in neuroplasticity processes occurring during the development, maturation and/or aging of the gastrointestinal tract, as well as that the number of CART-positive neurons is controlled by sex hormones and depends on the gender. However, the elucidation of all aspects connected with the influence of age and gender on the population of CART-positive neurons in the ENS requires further comprehensive studies.

Role of red beetroot in bread for reducing mycotoxin risks: Bioavailability of beetroot polyphenols and betalains with ochratoxin a, aflatoxin B1 and zearalenone in Caco-2 cells

The interaction between dietary bioactive compounds and mycotoxins in food safety is crucial due to the potential health risks raised by mycotoxins and the protective functions of bioactive substances. This study is focused on red beetroot (Beta vulgaris), a rich source of polyphenols and betalains, incorporated into a daily consumption food such as bread, to examine its effects on the bioavailability of mycotoxins using an in vitro Caco-2 cell model. This study investigates how these compounds affect the bioavailability of mycotoxins, specifically ochratoxin A (OTA), aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), and zearalenone (ZEA), which are known to compromise intestinal barrier function and nutrient absorption. Additionally, bioaccesibility and bioavailability of total betalains (betacyanins and betaxanthins) (TBC) and polyphenols (TPC) content was evaluated. The beetroot-enriched breads were subjected to an in vitro digestion process, followed by a transepithelial transport assay to assess the bioavailability in differentiated Caco-2 cells. Results indicate an increase in the bioaccesibility of TBC and TPC (up to 99 % and 27 %, respectively) during digestion, suggesting enhanced absorption and protective effects against mycotoxin-induced damage. The presence of beetroot bread polyphenols and betalains increased the bioavailability of mycotoxins, with complex interactions observed, particularly in triple mycotoxin's combination. The results highlight the complex interactions between dietary components and mycotoxins' bioavailability, underlining the importance of further research into their mechanisms of action and potential applications in food safety and nutrition.

Neurotoxicological Effects of Some Mycotoxins on Humans Health and Methods of Neuroprotection

Food contamination with mycotoxin-producing fungi increases the risk of many diseases, including neurological diseases closely related to the neurotoxicity of these toxins. Based on the latest literature data, we presented the association of common Fusarium mycotoxins with neurological diseases. Articles from 2001 to 2024 were analyzed. The mechanisms underlying the neurotoxicity of the described mycotoxins were presented. They are mainly related to the increase in oxidative stress in neuronal cells, which leads to higher levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines as IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α, enzymatic activity as GST, GPx, CAT and SOD and neurotransmitter dysfunction (5-HT, serotonin, dopamine and GABA). At the end of the article, based on the literature data, we attempted to present ways to mitigate mycotoxin neurotoxicity using mainly natural substances of plant origin. The data in this review focus on the Fusarium mycotoxins most frequently found in food and will be useful as comparative information for future studies. It is important to conduct further studies to mitigate the neurotoxic effects of Fusarium mycotoxins in order to reduce the development of diseases of the nervous system.

AHR activation relieves deoxynivalenol-induced disruption of porcine intestinal epithelial barrier functions

Mycotoxins are ubiquitous natural pollutants that pose a serious threat to public health. Deoxynivalenol (DON) as one of the most prominent mycotoxins has a noticeable adverse effect on intestinal barrier function, which depends on the intestinal barrier integrity. However, the potential mechanisms and effective therapeutic strategies remain unclear. Aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR) has been implicated in the modulation of intestinal barrier function and inflammation. The study aims to investigate the unique role of AHR in mediating DON-induced intestinal epithelial barrier function. In the current study, we revealed that DON triggered mitochondrial structural damage and functional impairment, leading to oxidative stress and apoptosis in porcine jejunal epithelial cells (IPEC-J2). DON altered the integrity of IPEC-J2 cells by disrupting the distribution and function of tight junction proteins. Additionally, DON activated TNF-α/NF-κB/MLCK signaling pathway, thereby eliciting inflammatory response. Notably, DON inhibited AHR nuclear translocation and attenuated xenobiotic response element promoter activity and its target genes. However, overexpression of AHR mitigated DON-induced disruption of intestinal epithelial barrier functions by suppressing TNF-α/NF-κB/MLCK pathway in IPEC-J2 cells. Our findings indicate that AHR regulates intestinal epithelial barrier function and therefore is a novel therapeutic molecule for intestinal disorders.

Blood levels of zearalenone, thyroid-stimulating hormone, and thyroid hormones in patients with colorectal cancer

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by various species of mold fungi commonly found in plant materials. Zearalenone (ZEN) adversely affects the endocrine system. This study aimed to determine whether thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), procalcitonin (PCT), free triiodothyronine (fT3), and free thyroxine (fT4) levels are altered during natural zearalenone mycotoxicosis in patients diagnosed with sigmoid colon cancer (SCC) or colorectal cancer (CRC). A study was conducted on women and men diagnosed with SCC or CRC accompanied by the presence or absence (Patients Without ZEN - PWZ group) of ZEN in the blood. The PWZ group consisted of 17 patients with symptoms of SCC and CRC in whom ZEN and its metabolites were not detected in peripheral blood. The experimental (empirical) groups included a total of 16 SCC and CRC patients who tested positive for ZEN, but not its metabolites. TSH values in both sexes were within the upper limit of the reference range (0.27-4.2 μIU/mL) adopted by the hospital laboratory and corresponded to the upper second tertile and the lower third tertile. PCT values demonstrated that SCC and CRC were accompanied by a systemic or local bacterial infection. All mean values of fT3 were in the middle of the reference range, and the mean values of fT4 were within the upper reference limit. The fT3/fT4 prognostic marker was somewhat above the cut-off point of 0.22. These results indicate that in postmenopausal women and andropausal men who were diagnosed with SCC and CRC and were exposed to food-borne ZEN, higher values of the prognostic marker (fT3/fT4) were associated with an unfavorable prognosis. The study also revealed that the more distal the neoplastic lesions in the colon, the higher the percentage of both thyroid hormones, regardless of the patient's sex. The presence of ZEN in the diet alters thyroid activity in patients diagnosed with SCC and CRC.

Oral Exposure to Microplastics Affects the Neurochemical Plasticity of Reactive Neurons in the Porcine Jejunum

Plastics are present in almost every aspect of our lives. Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) is commonly used in the food industry. Microparticles can contaminate food and drinks, posing a threat to consumers. The presented study aims to determine the effect of microparticles of PET on the population of neurons positive for selected neurotransmitters in the enteric nervous system of the jejunum and histological structure. An amount of 15 pigs were divided into three groups (control, receiving 0.1 g, and 1 g/day/animal orally). After 28 days, fragments of the jejunum were collected for immunofluorescence and histological examination. The obtained results show that histological changes (injury of the apical parts of the villi, accumulations of cellular debris and mucus, eosinophil infiltration, and hyperaemia) were more pronounced in pigs receiving a higher dose of microparticles. The effect on neuronal nitric oxide synthase-, and substance P-positive neurons, depends on the examined plexus and the dose of microparticles. An increase in the percentage of galanin-positive neurons and a decrease in cocaine and amphetamine-regulated transcript-, vesicular acetylcholine transporter-, and vasoactive intestinal peptide-positive neurons do not show such relationships. The present study shows that microparticles can potentially have neurotoxic and pro-inflammatory effects, but there is a need for further research to determine the mechanism of this process and possible further effects.

Comparison of the Influence of Bisphenol A and Bisphenol S on the Enteric Nervous System of the Mouse Jejunum

Bisphenols are dangerous endocrine disruptors that pollute the environment. Due to their chemical properties, they are globally used to produce plastics. Structural similarities to oestrogen allow bisphenols to bind to oestrogen receptors and affect internal body systems. Most commonly used in the plastic industry is bisphenol A (BPA), which also has negative effects on the nervous, immune, endocrine, and cardiovascular systems. A popular analogue of BPA-bisphenol S (BPS) also seems to have harmful effects similar to BPA on living organisms. Therefore, with the use of double immunofluorescence labelling, this study aimed to compare the effect of BPA and BPS on the enteric nervous system (ENS) in mouse jejunum. The study showed that both studied toxins impact the number of nerve cells immunoreactive to substance P (SP), galanin (GAL), vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP), the neuronal isoform of nitric oxide synthase (nNOS), and vesicular acetylcholine transporter (VAChT). The observed changes were similar in the case of both tested bisphenols. However, the influence of BPA showed stronger changes in neurochemical coding. The results also showed that long-term exposure to BPS significantly affects the ENS.

Effect of atractylenolide III on zearalenone-induced Snail1-mediated epithelial-mesenchymal transition in porcine intestinal epithelium

BACKGROUND

The intestinal epithelium performs essential physiological functions, such as nutrient absorption, and acts as a barrier to prevent the entry of harmful substances. Mycotoxins are prevalent contaminants found in animal feed that exert harmful effects on the health of livestock. Zearalenone (ZEA) is produced by the Fusarium genus and induces gastrointestinal dysfunction and disrupts the health and immune system of animals. Here, we evaluated the molecular mechanisms that regulate the effects of ZEA on the porcine intestinal epithelium.

RESULTS

Treatment of IPEC-J2 cells with ZEA decreased the expression of E-cadherin and increased the expression of Snai1 and Vimentin, which induced Snail1-mediated epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT). In addition, ZEA induces Snail-mediated EMT through the activation of TGF-β signaling. The treatment of IPEC-J2 cells with atractylenolide III, which were exposed to ZEA, alleviated EMT.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings provide insights into the molecular mechanisms of ZEA toxicity in porcine intestinal epithelial cells and ways to mitigate it.

HLA gene variations and mycotoxin toxicity: Four case reports

Mycotoxins are produced by certain molds that can cause many health effects. We present four human cases of prolonged consistent mycotoxins exposure linked to genetic variations in human leukocyte antigen (HLA) alleles. The HLA-DR/DQ isotype alleles are linked to mycotoxins susceptibility due to the lack of proper immune response; individuals with these alleles are poor eliminators of mycotoxins from their system. Four subjects with variations in their HLA-DR alleles were exposed to mycotoxins from living in mold-infested houses and experienced persistent mold-related symptoms long after moving out from the mold-infested houses and only exposed to the levels of molds found in the ambient air. From one of the subjects, two urine samples were collected ~ 18 months apart after the cessation of exposure. Urinary elimination rate was extremely slow for two of the mycotoxins (ochratoxin A [OTA] and mycophenolic acid [MPA]) detected in both samples. In 18 months, decline in OTA level was only ~ 3-fold (estimated t½ of ~ 311 days) and decline in MPA level was ~ 11-fold (estimated t½ of ~ 160 days), which was ~ 10- and ~ 213-fold slower than expected in individuals without HLA-DR alleles, respectively. We estimated that ~ 4.3 and ~ 2.2 years will be required for OTA and MPA to reach < LLQ in urine, respectively. Three other subjects with variations in HLA-DR alleles were members of a family who lived in a mold-infested house for 4 years. They kept experiencing mold-related issues >2 years after moving to a non-mold-infested house. Consistent exposure was confirmed by the presence of several mycotoxins in urine >2 years after the secession of higher than background (from outdoor ambient air) exposure. This was consistent with the extremely slow elimination of mycotoxins from their system. Variations in HLA-DR alleles can, consequently, make even short periods of exposure to chronic exposure scenarios with related adverse health effects. It is, therefore, important to determine genetic predisposition as a reason for prolonged/lingering mold-related symptoms long after the cessation of higher than background exposure. Increased human exposure to mycotoxins is expected from increased mold infestation that is anticipated due to rising CO2, temperature, and humidity from the climate change with possibly increased adverse health effects, especially in individuals with genetic susceptibility to mold toxicity.

Recalling the reported toxicity assessment of deoxynivalenol, mitigating strategies and its toxicity mechanisms: Comprehensive review

Mycotoxins frequently contaminate a variety of food items, posing significant concerns for both food safety and public health. The adverse consequences linked to poisoning from these substances encompass symptoms such as vomiting, loss of appetite, diarrhea, the potential for cancer development, impairments to the immune system, disruptions in neuroendocrine function, genetic damage, and, in severe cases, fatality. The deoxynivalenol (DON) raises significant concerns for both food safety and human health, particularly due to its potential harm to vital organs in the body. It is one of the most prevalent fungal contaminants found in edible items used by humans and animals globally. The presence of harmful mycotoxins, including DON, in food has caused widespread worry. Altered versions of DON have arisen as possible risks to the environment and well-being, as they exhibit a greater propensity to revert back to the original mycotoxins. This can result in the buildup of mycotoxins in both animals and humans, underscoring the pressing requirement for additional investigation into the adverse consequences of these modified mycotoxins. Furthermore, due to the lack of sufficient safety data, accurately evaluating the risk posed by modified mycotoxins remains challenging. Our review study delves into conjugated forms of DON, exploring its structure, toxicity, control strategies, and a novel animal model for assessing its toxicity. Various toxicities, such as acute, sub-acute, chronic, and cellular, are proposed as potential mechanisms contributing to the toxicity of conjugated forms of DON. Additionally, the study offers an overview of DON's toxicity mechanisms and discusses its widespread presence worldwide. A thorough exploration of the health risk evaluation associated with conjugated form of DON is also provided in this discussion.

A Cohort Study Investigating Zearalenone Concentrations and Selected Steroid Levels in Patients with Sigmoid Colorectal Cancer or Colorectal Cancer

THE AIM

In this study was to determine if sigmoid colorectal cancer (SCC) and colorectal cancer (CRC) in women (W) and men (M) is accompanied by zearalenone (ZEN) mycotoxicosis and changes in selected steroid levels.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This cohort study was conducted on female and male patients selected from a population based on the presence of SCC or CRC, which was accompanied by the presence or absence (control group) of ZEN in their blood. The control group consisted of 17 patients with symptoms of SCC and CRC, where ZEN and its metabolites were not detected in the peripheral blood. The experimental groups comprised a total of 16 patients with SCC and CRC, where ZEN, but not its metabolites, was detected in their peripheral blood samples.

RESULTS

In groups SCC and CRC, the ZEN levels were very high, in the range from 214 to 289 ng/mL of blood. Considerable variations were observed in the concentrations of steroid hormones. Estradiol (E2) levels ranged from 166.25 (group C) to 325 pg/mL (group CRC) in women and from 98 (group C) to 95.5 pg/mL (group CRC) in men. Progesterone (P4) levels ranged from 12.09 (group C) to 13.64 ng/mL (group SCC) in women and from 6.98 (group CRC) to 12.01 ng/mL (group C) in men.

CONCLUSIONS

These results indicate that post-menopausal women and similarly aged elderly men have a high and individualized demand for estrogen that is relatively effectively met by ZEN, which triggers qualitative changes in estrogen receptors. The shortage of ZEN metabolites (values under the sensitivity of the method) confirmed the high estrogen demand in the studied subjects. The presence or absence of ZEN could have influenced the therapeutic outcomes in the analyzed patients.

Bisphenol A Effects on Neurons' Neurochemical Character in the Urinary Bladder Intramural Ganglia of Domestic Pigs

Bisphenol A (BPA), a substance globally used to produce plastics, is part of many everyday items, including bottles, food containers, electronic elements, and others. It may penetrate the environment and living organisms, negatively affecting, among others, the nervous, immune, endocrine, and cardiovascular systems. Knowledge of the impact of BPA on the urinary bladder is extremely scarce. This study investigated the influence of two doses of BPA (0.05 mg/kg body weight (b.w.)/day and 0.5 mg/kg b.w./day) given orally for 28 days on the neurons situated in the ganglia located in the urinary bladder trigone using the typical double immunofluorescence method. In the study, an increase in the percentage of neurons containing substance P (SP), galanin (GAL), a neuronal isoform of nitric oxide synthase (nNOS-used as the marker of nitrergic neurons), and/or cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript (CART) peptide was noted after BPA administration. The severity of these changes depended on the dose of BPA and the type of neuronal factors studied. The most visible changes were noted in the cases of SP- and/or GAL-positive neurons after administering a higher dose of BPA. The results have shown that oral exposure to BPA, lasting even for a short time, affects the intramural neurons in the urinary bladder wall, and changes in the neurochemical characterisation of these neurons may be the first signs of BPA-induced pathological processes in this organ.

Inulin Inhibits the Inflammatory Response through Modulating Enteric Glial Cell Function in Type 2 Diabetic Mellitus Mice by Reshaping Intestinal Flora

Inulin, a commonly used dietary fiber supplement, is capable of modulating the gut microbiome. Chronic inflammation resulting from metabolic abnormalities and gut flora dysfunction plays a significant role in the development of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Our research has demonstrated that inulin administration effectively reduced colonic inflammation in T2DM mice by inducing changes in the gut microbiota and increasing the concentration of butyric acid, which in turn modulated the function of enteric glial cells (EGCs). Experiments conducted on T2DM mice revealed that inulin administration led to an increase in the Bacteroidetes/Firmicutes ratio and the concentration of butyric acid in the colon. The anti-inflammatory effects of altered gastrointestinal flora and its metabolites were further confirmed through fecal microbiota transplantation. Butyric acid was found to inhibit the activation of the κB inhibitor kinase β/nuclear factor κB pathway, regulate the expression levels of interleukin-6 and tumor necrosis factor-α, suppress the abnormal activation of EGCs, and prevent the release of inflammatory factors by EGCs. Similar results were observed in vitro experiments with butyric acid. Our findings demonstrate that inulin, by influencing the intestinal flora, modifies the activity of EGCs to effectively reduce colonic inflammation in T2DM mice.

T-2 and HT-2 Toxins: Toxicity, Occurrence and Analysis: A Review

One of the major classes of mycotoxins posing serious hazards to humans and animals and potentially causing severe economic impact to the cereal industry are the trichothecenes, produced by many fungal genera. As such, indicative limits for the sum of T-2 and HT-2 were introduced in the European Union in 2013 and discussions are ongoing as to the establishment of maximum levels. This review provides a concise assessment of the existing understanding concerning the toxicological effects of T-2 and HT-2 in humans and animals, their biosynthetic pathways, occurrence, impact of climate change on their production and an evaluation of the analytical methods applied to their detection. This study highlights that the ecology of F. sporotrichioides and F. langsethiae as well as the influence of interacting environmental factors on their growth and activation of biosynthetic genes are still not fully understood. Predictive models of Fusarium growth and subsequent mycotoxin production would be beneficial in predicting the risk of contamination and thus aid early mitigation. With the likelihood of regulatory maximum limits being introduced, increased surveillance using rapid, on-site tests in addition to confirmatory methods will be required. allowing the industry to be proactive rather than reactive.

The Multidirectional Influence of Feed-Borne Deoxynivalenol and Zearalenone on Animal Health

Mycotoxins are secondary fungal metabolites which pose a significant threat for global food and feed security [...].

Involvement of enteric glial cells in colonic motility in a rat model of irritable bowel syndrome with predominant diarrhea

The enteric nervous system (ENS) is one of the important systems that regulate gastrointestinal function. The ENS is made up of enteric glial cells (EGCs) and neurons. For a long time, it was believed that the function of EGCs was only to give structural support to neurons. However, recent evidence indicates EGCs are involved in most gut functions, including the development and plasticity of the ENS, epithelial barrier, and motility. However, it remains unclear whether EGCs have the potential to modify colonic motility following irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) with predominant diarrhea (IBS-D). This study aimed to investigate changes in EGCs during IBS-D and assessed the effects of manipulating EGCs. An IBS-D rat model was constructed using acetic acid and restraint stress, and DL-fluorocitric acid (FC), an inhibitor of EGCs, was administered. The changes in EGCs and colonic motility were studied by employing techniques comprising morphological, molecular biological and functional experiments. The results showed significant activation of EGCs in the myenteric plexus (MP) of the IBS-D-induced rat colon with accelerated colonic motility. FC significantly reduced the activation of EGCs and colonic motility caused by acetic acid and restraint stress. Hypercontraction of the colon caused by IBS-D may be associated with activation of EGCs in the MP of the colon and this was prevented by FC. Therefore, regulating colon hypercontraction through interference with the activation of EGCs has significant prospects for clinical application to alleviate diarrhea in patients with IBS-D.

Changes in the Enteric Neurons Containing Selected Active Substances in the Porcine Descending Colon after the Administration of Bisphenol A (BPA)

Bisphenol A (BPA) is an endocrine disruptor widely distributed in the environment due to its common use in the plastics industry. It is known that it has a strong negative effect on human and animal organisms, but a lot of aspects of this impact are still unexplored. This includes the impact of BPA on the enteric nervous system (ENS) in the large intestine. Therefore, the aim of the study was to investigate the influence of various doses of BPA on the neurons located in the descending colon of the domestic pig, which due to similarities in the organization of intestinal innervation to the human gastrointestinal tract is a good animal model to study processes occurring in human ENS. During this study, the double immunofluorescence technique was used. The obtained results have shown that BPA clearly affects the neurochemical characterization of the enteric neurons located in the descending colon. The administration of BPA caused an increase in the number of enteric neurons containing substance P (SP) and vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP) with a simultaneously decrease in the number of neurons positive for galanin (GAL) and vesicular acetylcholine transporter (VAChT used as a marker of cholinergic neurons). Changes were noted in all types of the enteric plexuses, i.e., the myenteric plexus, outer submucous plexus and inner submucous plexus. The intensity of changes depended on the dose of BPA and the type of enteric plexus studied. The results have shown that BPA may affect the descending colon through the changes in neurochemical characterization of the enteric neurons located in this segment of the gastrointestinal tract.

Galanin Receptors (GALR1, GALR2, and GALR3) Immunoexpression in Enteric Plexuses of Colorectal Cancer Patients: Correlation with the Clinico-Pathological Parameters

Galanin (GAL) is an important neurotransmitter released by the enteric nervous system (ENS) neurons located in the muscularis externa and submucosa enteric plexuses that acts by binding to GAL receptors 1, 2 and 3 (GALR1, 2 and 3). In our previous studies, the GAL immunoexpression was compared in colorectal cancer (CRC) tissue and the adjacent parts of the large intestine wall including myenteric and submucosal plexuses. Recently we have also found that expression levels of GALR1 and GALR3 proteins are elevated in CRC tissue as compared with their expression in epithelial cells of unchanged mucosa. Moreover, higher GALR3 immunoreactivity in CRC cells correlated with better prognosis of CRC patients. To understand the distribution of GALRs in enteric plexuses distal and close to CRC invasion, in the present study we decided to evaluate GALRs expression within the myenteric and submucosal plexuses located proximally and distally to the cancer invasion and correlated the GALRs expression levels with the clinico-pathological data of CRC patients. The immunohistochemical and immunofluorescent methods showed only slightly decreased immunoexpression of GALR1 and GALR3 in myenteric plexuses close to cancer but did not reveal any correlation in the immunoexpression of all three GAL receptors in myenteric plexuses and tumour progression. No significant changes were found between the expression levels of GALRs in submucosal plexuses distal and close to the tumour. However, elevated GALR1 expression in submucosal plexuses in vicinity of CRC correlated with poor prognosis, higher tumour grading and shorter overall survival. When myenteric plexuses undergo morphological and functional alterations characteristic for atrophy, GALRs maintain or only slightly decrease their expression status. In contrast, the correlation between high expression of GALR1 in the submucosal plexuses and overall survival of CRC patients suggest that GAL and GALRs can act as a components of local neuro-paracrine pro-proliferative pathways accelerating the invasion and metastasis of cancer cell. The obtained results suggest an important role of GALR1 in submucosal plexuses function during the progression of CRC and imply that GALR1 expression in submucosal plexuses of ENS could be an important predictive factor for CRC progression.

Exposure to Low Zearalenone Doses and Changes in the Homeostasis and Concentrations of Endogenous Hormones in Selected Steroid-Sensitive Tissues in Pre-Pubertal Gilts

This study was undertaken to analyze whether prolonged exposure to low-dose zearalenone (ZEN) mycotoxicosis affects the concentrations of ZEN, α-zearalenol (α-ZEL), and β-zearalenol (β-ZEL) in selected reproductive system tissues (ovaries, uterine horn-ovarian and uterine sections, and the middle part of the cervix), the hypothalamus, and pituitary gland, or the concentrations of selected steroid hormones in pre-pubertal gilts. For 42 days, gilts were administered per os different ZEN doses (MABEL dose [5 µg/kg BW], the highest NOAEL dose [10 µg/kg BW], and the lowest LOAEL dose [15 µg/kg BW]). Tissue samples were collected on days seven, twenty-one, and forty-two of exposure to ZEN (exposure days D1, D2, and D3, respectively). Blood for the analyses of estradiol and progesterone concentrations was collected in vivo on six dates at seven-day intervals (on analytical dates D1-D6). The analyses revealed that both ZEN and its metabolites were accumulated in the examined tissues. On successive analytical dates, the rate of mycotoxin accumulation in the studied tissues decreased gradually by 50% and proportionally to the administered ZEN dose. A hierarchical visualization revealed that values of the carry-over factor (CF) were highest on exposure day D2. In most groups and on most exposure days, the highest CF values were found in the middle part of the cervix, followed by the ovaries, both sections of the uterine horn, and the hypothalamus. These results suggest that ZEN, α-ZEL, and β-ZEL were deposited in all analyzed tissues despite exposure to very low ZEN doses. The presence of these undesirable compounds in the examined tissues can inhibit the somatic development of the reproductive system and compromise neuroendocrine coordination of reproductive competence in pre-pubertal gilts.

Morphology and Chemical Coding of Rat Duodenal Enteric Neurons following Prenatal Exposure to Fumonisins

Fumonisins (FBs), including fumonisin B1 and B2 produced by the fungus Fusarium verticillioides, are widespread mycotoxins contaminating crop plants as well as processed food. The aim of the experiment was to determine whether the exposure of 5-week-old pregnant rats to FBs at 60 mg/kg b.w. (group FB60) or 90 mg/kg b.w. (group FB90) results in morphological changes in the duodenum of weaned offspring, particularly the enteric nervous system (ENS). In addition, the levels of expression of galanin and vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP) in the ENS were analysed by immunofluorescence in the control and experimental groups of animals. No significant morphological changes in the thickness of the muscle layer or submucosa of the duodenum were noted in group FB60 or FB90. In group FB90 (but not FB60), there was a significant increase in the width of the villi and in the density of the intestinal crypts. Immunofluorescence analysis using neuronal marker Hu C/D showed no significant changes in group FB60 or FB90 in the morphology of the duodenal ENS, i.e., the myenteric plexus (MP) and submucosal plexus (SP), in terms of the density of enteric ganglia in the MP and SP, surface area of MP and SP ganglia, length and width of MP and SP ganglia, surface area of myenteric and submucosal neurons, diameter of myenteric and submucosal neurons, density of myenteric and submucosal neurons, and number of myenteric and submucosal neurons per ganglion. In both groups, there was an increase (relative to the control) in the percentage of Hu C/D-IR/VIP-IR (IR-immunoreactive) and Hu C/D-IR/galanin-IR myenteric and submucosal neurons in the ganglia of both the MP and SP of the duodenum. In addition, in groups FB60 and FB90, there was an increase in the number of nerve fibres showing expression of VIP and galanin in the mucosa, submucosa and circular muscle layer of the duodenum. The results indicate that prenatal exposure to FBs does not significantly alter the histological structure of the duodenum (including the ENS) in the weaned offspring. The changes observed in the chemical code of the myenteric and submucosal neurons in both experimental groups suggest harmful activity of FBs, which may translate into activation of repair mechanisms via overexpression of neuroprotective neuropeptides (VIP and galanin).

Mold, Mycotoxins and a Dysregulated Immune System: A Combination of Concern?

Fungi represent one of the most diverse and abundant eukaryotes on earth. The interplay between mold exposure and the host immune system is still not fully elucidated. Literature research focusing on up-to-date publications is providing a heterogenous picture of evidence and opinions regarding the role of mold and mycotoxins in the development of immune diseases. While the induction of allergic immune responses by molds is generally acknowledged, other direct health effects like the toxic mold syndrome are controversially discussed. However, recent observations indicate a particular importance of mold/mycotoxin exposure in individuals with pre-existing dysregulation of the immune system, due to exacerbation of underlying pathophysiology including allergic and non-allergic chronic inflammatory diseases, autoimmune disorders, and even human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) disease progression. In this review, we focus on the impact of mycotoxins regarding their impact on disease progression in pre-existing immune dysregulation. This is complemented by experimental in vivo and in vitro findings to present cellular and molecular modes of action. Furthermore, we discuss hypothetical mechanisms of action, where evidence is missing since much remains to be discovered.

Protective effect of a new generation of activated and purified bentonite in combination with yeast and phytogenic substances on mycotoxin challenge in pigs

The study aimed to investigate the efficacy of new mycotoxin adsorbents based on purified and activated bentonites combined with yeast and phytogenic compounds in fattening pigs. The experiment involved 96 pigs (31.2±2.4 kg). Control (C) group was fed a diet naturally contaminated with mycotoxins (5 mg/kg deoxynivalenol, DON) without an adsorbent. Treated groups received the feed with mycotoxin adsorbents: purified and activated bentonite (T1), purified and activated bentonite, yeast derivatives, phytogenic substances (T2), and purified, activated, and sulphurated bentonite with phytogenic substances (T3). Evaluated parameters involved growth performance, organ weight, small intestine and liver histopathology, complete blood count, serum biochemistry, antioxidant status of the organism and total and free DON content in urine. In all treated groups, an significant increase in intestinal GSH and GSH/GSSG ratio was observed when compared to C. No significant effects on liver and kidney weight, complete blood count, serum or intestinal malondialdehyde concentration, or total/free DON content in urine were observed. All adsorbents improved histopathological findings in the liver when compared to C. Moreover, T1, and T2 groups showed no presence of inflammatory reaction or necrotic changes in the livers. Although, mycotoxin adsorbents investigated in this study had no significant impact on pig growth performance, they reduced the oxidative stress, and on the tissue level they protected the jejunal tissue and liver parenchyma under deoxynivalenol challenge.

Microstructure of the nerve plexus of the muscular membrane of the gut of domestic ducks (Anas platyrhynchos domesticus) of different ages

As evidenced by the publications of recent years, contrary to the existing dogma about the immutability of the state of the enteric nervous system during the postnatal period of ontogenesis, the population of intestinal neurons is a dynamic formation, decreasing with age and changing due to the action of environmental factors. The current article presents the results of study of the microscopic structure of the nerve plexus of the muscular membrane of the enteric nervous system of domestic ducks (Anas platyrhynchos domesticus) of the black white–breasted breed, of nine age groups of 1–365 days of age. The topography, number, area of nerve nodes, as well as the density of neurons in them were determined on transverse sections of the duodenum, jejunum, ileum, caecum and rectum. For the purpose of a generalized assessment of the morphofunctional state of the nerve plexuses, two parameters were determined: the average age indicator of the gut and intestines. The average age indicator of a certain structure of each intestine was determined as the arithmetical average of its nine age indicators. The average age indicator of a certain gut structure was determined as the arithmetic average of the average age indicator of the structure of all five intestines. It has been established that the nerve plexus of the muscular membrane (myenteric, plexus Auerbachi) of the gut of domestic ducks, in contrast to mammals, is not located between the layers of the muscular membrane, but in its outer layer. On a transverse section of the gut wall, the myenteric ganglia and cords that connect have a predominantly elliptical shape. Despite a significant increase with age in the diameter and thickness of the gut wall, the total number of myenteric ganglia changed little, increasing or decreasing with varying degrees of reliability relative to the previous age. In the gut of ducks, during the first year of the postnatal period of ontogenesis, the smallest number of myenteric ganglia was found in the cecum, and the largest – in the ileum. The general pattern of the dynamics of the size of the myenteric ganglia of the gut of ducks was an increase in their area with age. Moreover, this indicator reached the greatest value at different ages of ducks: at 30 days of age in the ileum and cecum, at 180 days of age – in the rectum and at 365 days of age – in the duodenum. The smallest area of the myenteric ganglia was found in the jejunum, and the largest – in the duodenum and ileum. The smallest number of neurons in the ganglion was found in the cecum, and the largest – in the rectum, the lowest density of neurons in the ganglion was found in the cecum, and the largest – in the jejunum. The general quantitative pattern of neurons in the ganglion was the decrease in their density with age. Changes in the morphometric parameters of the ganglia of the nerve plexus of the muscular membrane of the ducks’ gut indicate the plasticity of the enteric nervous system, its ability to dynamically respond to the action of factors of the internal and external environment. It is promising to study the state of the submucous nerve plexus, as well as the cellular composition of the population of neurons of the enteric nervous system of domestic and wild poultry.

Changes in the Population Size of Calbindin D-28k-Immunoreactive Enteric Neurons in the Porcine Caecum under the Influence of Bisphenol A: A Preliminary Study

Calbindin D-28k (CB) is a calcium-binding protein widely distributed in living organisms that may act as a calcium buffer and sensory protein. CB is present in the enteric nervous system (ENS) situated in the gastrointestinal tract, which controls the majority of activities of the stomach and intestine. The influence of various doses of bisphenol A (BPA)—a chemical compound widely used in plastics production—on the number and distribution of CB-positive enteric neuronal cells in the porcine caecum was investigated with an immunofluorescence technique. The obtained results showed that low dosages of BPA resulted in an increase in the number of CB-positive neuronal cells in the myenteric (MP) and inner submucous (ISP) plexuses, whereas it did not alter the number of such neuronal cells in the outer submucous plexus (OSP). High dosages of BPA caused the increase in the amount of CB-positive perikarya in all the above-mentioned kinds of the caecal neuronal plexuses. These observations strongly suggest that CB in the ENS participates in the processes connected with the toxic activity of BPA. Most likely, the changes noted in this experiment result from the adaptive and protective properties of CB.

The Presence of Mycotoxins in Feed and Their Influence on Animal Health

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites of fungi [...].