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McFarlane LO, Pukala TL. Proteomic Investigation of Cape Cobra ( Naja nivea) Venom Reveals First Evidence of Quaternary Protein Structures. Toxins (Basel) 2024; 16:63. [PMID: 38393141 PMCID: PMC10892407 DOI: 10.3390/toxins16020063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2023] [Revised: 01/10/2024] [Accepted: 01/19/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Naja nivea (N. nivea) is classed as a category one snake by the World Health Organization since its envenomation causes high levels of mortality and disability annually. Despite this, there has been little research into the venom composition of N. nivea, with only one full venom proteome published to date. Our current study separated N. nivea venom using size exclusion chromatography before utilizing a traditional bottom-up proteomics approach to unravel the composition of the venom proteome. As expected by its clinical presentation, N. nivea venom was found to consist mainly of neurotoxins, with three-finger toxins (3FTx), making up 76.01% of the total venom proteome. Additionally, cysteine-rich secretory proteins (CRISPs), vespryns (VESPs), cobra venom factors (CVFs), 5'-nucleotidases (5'NUCs), nerve growth factors (NGFs), phospholipase A2s (PLA2), acetylcholinesterases (AChEs), Kunitz-type serine protease inhibitor (KUN), phosphodiesterases (PDEs), L-amino acid oxidases (LAAOs), hydrolases (HYDs), snake venom metalloproteinases (SVMPs), and snake venom serine protease (SVSP) toxins were also identified in decreasing order of abundance. Interestingly, contrary to previous reports, we find PLA2 toxins in N. nivea venom. This highlights the importance of repeatedly profiling the venom of the same species to account for intra-species variation. Additionally, we report the first evidence of covalent protein complexes in N. nivea venom, which likely contribute to the potency of this venom.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Tara L. Pukala
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide 5005, Australia;
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Hiremath K, Dodakallanavar J, Sampat GH, Patil VS, Harish DR, Chavan R, Hegde HV, Roy S. Three finger toxins of elapids: structure, function, clinical applications and its inhibitors. Mol Divers 2023:10.1007/s11030-023-10734-3. [PMID: 37749455 DOI: 10.1007/s11030-023-10734-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2023] [Accepted: 09/18/2023] [Indexed: 09/27/2023]
Abstract
The WHO lists snakebite as a "neglected tropical disease". In tropical and subtropical areas, envenoming is an important public health issue. This review article describes the structure, function, chemical composition, natural inhibitors, and clinical applications of Elapids' Three Finger Toxins (3FTX) using scientific research data. The primary venomous substance belonging to Elapidae is 3FTX, that targets nAChR. Three parallel β-sheets combine to create 3FTX, which has four or five disulfide bonds. The three primary types of 3FTX are short-chain, long-chain, and nonconventional 3FTX. The functions of 3FTX depend on the specific toxin subtype and the target receptor or ion channel. The well-known effect of 3FTX is probably neurotoxicity because of the severe consequences of muscular paralysis and respiratory failure in snakebite victims. 3FTX have also been studied for their potential clinical applications. α-bungarotoxin has been used as a molecular probe to study the structure and function of nAChRs (Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptors). Acid-sensing ion channel (ASIC) isoforms 1a and 1b are inhibited by Mambalgins, derived from Black mamba venom, which hinders their function and provide an analgesic effect. α- Cobra toxin is a neurotoxin purified from Chinese cobra (Naja atra) binds to nAChR at the neuronal junction and causes an analgesic effect for moderate to severe pain. Some of the plants and their compounds have been shown to inhibit the activity of 3FTX, and their mechanisms of action are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kashinath Hiremath
- ICMR-National Institute of Traditional Medicine, Belagavi, Karnataka, 590010, India
- KLE College of Pharmacy, Belagavi, KLE Academy of Higher Education and Research, Belagavi, Karnataka, 590010, India
| | - Jagadeesh Dodakallanavar
- ICMR-National Institute of Traditional Medicine, Belagavi, Karnataka, 590010, India
- KLE College of Pharmacy, Belagavi, KLE Academy of Higher Education and Research, Belagavi, Karnataka, 590010, India
| | - Ganesh H Sampat
- ICMR-National Institute of Traditional Medicine, Belagavi, Karnataka, 590010, India
- KLE College of Pharmacy, Belagavi, KLE Academy of Higher Education and Research, Belagavi, Karnataka, 590010, India
| | - Vishal S Patil
- ICMR-National Institute of Traditional Medicine, Belagavi, Karnataka, 590010, India
- KLE College of Pharmacy, Belagavi, KLE Academy of Higher Education and Research, Belagavi, Karnataka, 590010, India
| | - Darasaguppe R Harish
- ICMR-National Institute of Traditional Medicine, Belagavi, Karnataka, 590010, India.
| | - Rajashekar Chavan
- KLE College of Pharmacy, Belagavi, KLE Academy of Higher Education and Research, Belagavi, Karnataka, 590010, India.
| | - Harsha V Hegde
- ICMR-National Institute of Traditional Medicine, Belagavi, Karnataka, 590010, India
| | - Subarna Roy
- ICMR-National Institute of Traditional Medicine, Belagavi, Karnataka, 590010, India
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Gómez A, Sánchez A, Durán G, Villalta M, Segura Á, Vargas M, Solano D, Herrera M, Sánchez M, Gutiérrez JM, León G. Intrageneric cross-reactivity of monospecific rabbit antisera against venoms of the medically most important Naja spp. African snakes. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2023; 17:e0011545. [PMID: 37582064 PMCID: PMC10426987 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0011545] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2023] [Accepted: 07/21/2023] [Indexed: 08/17/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Envenomations by African snakes represent a high burden in the sub-Sahara region. The design and fabrication of polyspecific antivenoms with a broader effectiveness, specially tailored for its use in sub-Saharan Africa, require a better understanding of the immunological features of different Naja spp. venoms of highest medical impact in Africa; and to select the most appropriate antigen combinations to generate antivenoms of wider neutralizing scope. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS Rabbit-derived monospecific antisera were raised against the venoms of five spitting cobras and six non-spitting cobras. The effects of immunization in the animal model were assessed, as well as the development of antibody titers, as proved by immunochemical assays and neutralization of lethal, phospholipase A2 and dermonecrotic activities. By the end of the immunization schedule, the immunized rabbits showed normal values of all hematological parameters, and no muscle tissue damage was evidenced, although alterations in aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) suggested a degree of hepatic damage caused mainly by spitting cobra venoms. Immunologic analyses revealed a considerable extent of cross-reactivity of monospecific antisera against heterologous venoms within the spitting and no-spitting cobras, yet some antisera showed more extensive cross-reactivity than others. The antisera with the widest coverage were those of anti-Naja ashei and anti-N. nigricollis for the spitting cobras, and anti-N. haje and anti-N. senegalensis for the non-spitting cobras. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE The methods and study design followed provide a rationale for the selection of the best combination of venoms for generating antivenoms of high cross-reactivity against cobra venoms in sub-Saharan Africa. Results suggest that venoms from N. ashei, N. nigricollis within the spitting cobras, and N. haje and N. senegalensis within the non-spitting cobras, generate antisera with a broader cross-reactivity. These experimental results should be translated to larger animal models used in antivenom elaboration to assess whether these predictions are reproduced.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aarón Gómez
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Andrés Sánchez
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Gina Durán
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Mauren Villalta
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Álvaro Segura
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Mariángela Vargas
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Daniela Solano
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - María Herrera
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Melvin Sánchez
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - José María Gutiérrez
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Guillermo León
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
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Tan CH, Tan KY, Ng TS, Tan NH, Chong HP. De Novo Venom Gland Transcriptome Assembly and Characterization for Calloselasma rhodostoma (Kuhl, 1824), the Malayan Pit Viper from Malaysia: Unravelling Toxin Gene Diversity in a Medically Important Basal Crotaline. Toxins (Basel) 2023; 15:toxins15050315. [PMID: 37235350 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15050315] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2023] [Revised: 04/24/2023] [Accepted: 04/26/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023] Open
Abstract
In Southeast Asia, the Malayan Pit Viper (Calloselasma rhodostoma) is a venomous snake species of medical importance and bioprospecting potential. To unveil the diversity of its toxin genes, this study de novo assembled and analyzed the venom gland transcriptome of C. rhodostoma from Malaysia. The expression of toxin genes dominates the gland transcriptome by 53.78% of total transcript abundance (based on overall FPKM, Fragments Per Kilobase Million), in which 92 non-redundant transcripts belonging to 16 toxin families were identified. Snake venom metalloproteinase (SVMP, PI > PII > PIII) is the most dominant family (37.84% of all toxin FPKM), followed by phospholipase A2 (29.02%), bradykinin/angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor-C-type natriuretic peptide (16.30%), C-type lectin (CTL, 10.01%), snake venom serine protease (SVSP, 2.81%), L-amino acid oxidase (2.25%), and others (1.78%). The expressions of SVMP, CTL, and SVSP correlate with hemorrhagic, anti-platelet, and coagulopathic effects in envenoming. The SVMP metalloproteinase domains encode hemorrhagins (kistomin and rhodostoxin), while disintegrin (rhodostomin from P-II) acts by inhibiting platelet aggregation. CTL gene homologues uncovered include rhodocytin (platelet aggregators) and rhodocetin (platelet inhibitors), which contribute to thrombocytopenia and platelet dysfunction. The major SVSP is a thrombin-like enzyme (an ancrod homolog) responsible for defibrination in consumptive coagulopathy. The findings provide insight into the venom complexity of C. rhodostoma and the pathophysiology of envenoming.
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Affiliation(s)
- Choo Hock Tan
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia
| | - Kae Yi Tan
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia
| | - Tzu Shan Ng
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia
| | - Nget Hong Tan
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia
| | - Ho Phin Chong
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia
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Zeng L, Hou J, Ge C, Li Y, Gao J, Zhang C, Huang P, Du J, Mo Z, Liu Y, Zeng Z. Clinical study of anti-snake venom blockade in the treatment of local tissue necrosis caused by Chinese cobra (Naja atra) bites. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2022; 16:e0010997. [PMID: 36525460 PMCID: PMC9803274 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0010997] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2022] [Revised: 12/30/2022] [Accepted: 11/29/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE This study aimed to evaluate the clinical therapeutic efficacy of anti-snake venom serum blockade in treating local tissue necrosis caused by Chinese cobra (Naja atra) bites. METHODS Patients bitten by a Chinese cobra (Naja atra) (n = 50) that met the inclusion criteria were randomly divided into two groups: the experimental group (n = 25) and the control group (n = 25). The experimental group received regular as well as anti-snake venom serum blocking treatment, whereas regular treatment plus chymotrypsin blocking therapy was given to the control group. The necrotic volumes around snake wounds in these groups were detected on the first, third and seventh days. On the third day of treatment, some local tissues in the wounds were randomly selected for pathological biopsy, and the necrosis volume of the local tissue was observed. Furthermore, the amount of time required for wound healing was recorded. RESULTS On the third and seventh days post-treatment, the necrotic volume of the wound of the experimental group was much smaller than that of the control group, and the experimental group's wound healing time was shorter than that of the control group (all p < 0.05). Moreover, the pathological biopsies taken from the control group showed nuclear pyknosis, fragmentation, sparse nuclear density, and blurred edges, and the degree of necrosis was much higher than that of the experimental group. CONCLUSIONS Anti-snake venom blocking therapy is a new and improved therapy with good clinical effect on local tissue necrosis caused by Chinese cobra bites; moreover, it is superior to conventional chymotrypsin blocking therapy in the treatment of cobra bites. It can better neutralize and prevent the spread of the toxin, reduce tissue necrosis, and shorten the course of the disease by promoting healing of the wound. Furthermore, this treatment plan is also applicable to wound necrosis caused by other snake toxins, such as tissue necrosis caused by elapidae and viper families. CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION This trial is registered in the Chinese Clinical Trial Registry, a primary registry of International Clinical Trial Registry Platform, World Health Organization (Registration No. ChiCTR2200059070; trial URL:http://www.chictr.org.cn/edit.aspx?pid=134353&htm=4).
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Affiliation(s)
- Linsheng Zeng
- Department of Emergency, Shenzhen Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital, Shenzhen, China
| | - Jingjing Hou
- Department of Emergency, Shenzhen Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital, Shenzhen, China
| | - Cuihong Ge
- Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou Panyu Central Hospital,Guangzhou,China
| | - Yanjun Li
- Department of Emergency, Shenzhen Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital, Shenzhen, China
| | - Jianhua Gao
- Department of Emergency, Shenzhen Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital, Shenzhen, China
| | - Congcong Zhang
- Department of Emergency, Shenzhen Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital, Shenzhen, China
| | - Peiying Huang
- The Second Clinical Medical School of Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jiayu Du
- Department of Emergency, Shenzhen Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital, Shenzhen, China
| | - Zhizhun Mo
- Department of Emergency, Shenzhen Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital, Shenzhen, China
| | - Yuxiang Liu
- Department of Emergency, Shenzhen Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital, Shenzhen, China
- * E-mail: (YL); (ZZ)
| | - Zhongyi Zeng
- Department of Emergency, Shenzhen Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital, Shenzhen, China
- * E-mail: (YL); (ZZ)
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Nguyen GTT, O'Brien C, Wouters Y, Seneci L, Gallissà-Calzado A, Campos-Pinto I, Ahmadi S, Laustsen AH, Ljungars A. High-throughput proteomics and in vitro functional characterization of the 26 medically most important elapids and vipers from sub-Saharan Africa. Gigascience 2022; 11:6862934. [PMID: 36509548 PMCID: PMC9744630 DOI: 10.1093/gigascience/giac121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2022] [Revised: 10/06/2022] [Accepted: 11/14/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Venomous snakes are important parts of the ecosystem, and their behavior and evolution have been shaped by their surrounding environments over the eons. This is reflected in their venoms, which are typically highly adapted for their biological niche, including their diet and defense mechanisms for deterring predators. Sub-Saharan Africa is rich in venomous snake species, of which many are dangerous to humans due to the high toxicity of their venoms and their ability to effectively deliver large amounts of venom into their victims via their bite. In this study, the venoms of 26 of sub-Saharan Africa's medically most relevant elapid and viper species were subjected to parallelized toxicovenomics analysis. The analysis included venom proteomics and in vitro functional characterization of whole venom toxicities, enabling a robust comparison of venom profiles between species. The data presented here corroborate previous studies and provide biochemical details for the clinical manifestations observed in envenomings by the 26 snake species. Moreover, two new venom proteomes (Naja anchietae and Echis leucogaster) are presented here for the first time. Combined, the presented data can help shine light on snake venom evolutionary trends and possibly be used to further improve or develop novel antivenoms.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Yessica Wouters
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Lorenzo Seneci
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Alex Gallissà-Calzado
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Isabel Campos-Pinto
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Shirin Ahmadi
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Andreas H Laustsen
- Correspondence address. Andreas H. Laustsen, Technical University of Denmark, Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Søltofts Plads 239, 2800 Kgs. Lyngby. E-mail:
| | - Anne Ljungars
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
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Tan CH, Wong KY, Huang LK, Tan KY, Tan NH, Wu WG. Snake Venomics and Antivenomics of Cape Cobra ( Naja nivea) from South Africa: Insights into Venom Toxicity and Cross-Neutralization Activity. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14120860. [PMID: 36548757 PMCID: PMC9783313 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14120860] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2022] [Revised: 11/24/2022] [Accepted: 11/30/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Naja nivea (Cape Cobra) is endemic to southern Africa. Envenoming by N. nivea is neurotoxic, resulting in fatal paralysis. Its venom composition, however, has not been studied in depth, and specific antivenoms against it remain limited in supply. Applying a protein decomplexation approach, this study unveiled the venom proteome of N. nivea from South Africa. The major components in the venom are cytotoxins/cardiotoxins (~75.6% of total venom proteins) and alpha-neurotoxins (~7.4%), which belong to the three-finger toxin family. Intriguingly, phospholipase A2 (PLA2) was undetected-this is a unique venom phenotype increasingly recognized in the African cobras of the Uraeus subgenus. The work further showed that VINS African Polyvalent Antivenom (VAPAV) exhibited cross-reactivity toward the venom and immunorecognized its toxin fractions. In mice, VAPAV was moderately efficacious in cross-neutralizing the venom lethality with a potency of 0.51 mg/mL (amount of venom completely neutralized per milliliter of antivenom). In the challenge-rescue model, VAPAV prevented death in 75% of experimentally envenomed mice, with slow recovery from neurotoxicity up to 24 h. The finding suggests the potential para-specific utility of VAPAV for N. nivea envenoming, although a higher dose or repeated administration of the antivenom may be required to fully reverse the neurotoxic effect of the venom.
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Affiliation(s)
- Choo Hock Tan
- Venom Research and Toxicology Laboratory, Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia
- Institute of Bioinformatics and Structural Biology, Department of Life Science, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu 300044, Taiwan
- Correspondence: or
| | - Kin Ying Wong
- Venom Research and Toxicology Laboratory, Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia
- Institute of Bioinformatics and Structural Biology, Department of Life Science, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu 300044, Taiwan
| | - Li-Kun Huang
- Institute of Bioinformatics and Structural Biology, Department of Life Science, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu 300044, Taiwan
| | - Kae Yi Tan
- Protein and Interactomics Laboratory, Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia
| | - Nget Hong Tan
- Protein and Interactomics Laboratory, Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia
| | - Wen-Guey Wu
- Institute of Bioinformatics and Structural Biology, Department of Life Science, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu 300044, Taiwan
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8
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Kalita B, Utkin YN, Mukherjee AK. Current Insights in the Mechanisms of Cobra Venom Cytotoxins and Their Complexes in Inducing Toxicity: Implications in Antivenom Therapy. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14120839. [PMID: 36548736 PMCID: PMC9780984 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14120839] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2022] [Revised: 11/21/2022] [Accepted: 11/22/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Cytotoxins (CTXs), an essential class of the non-enzymatic three-finger toxin family, are ubiquitously present in cobra venoms. These low-molecular-mass toxins, contributing to about 40 to 60% of the cobra venom proteome, play a significant role in cobra venom-induced toxicity, more prominently in dermonecrosis. Structurally, CTXs contain the conserved three-finger hydrophobic loops; however, they also exhibit a certain degree of structural diversity that dictates their biological activities. In their mechanism, CTXs mediate toxicity by affecting cell membrane structures and membrane-bound proteins and activating apoptotic and necrotic cell death pathways. Notably, some CTXs are also responsible for depolarizing neurons and heart muscle membranes, thereby contributing to the cardiac failure frequently observed in cobra-envenomed victims. Consequently, they are also known as cardiotoxins (CdTx). Studies have shown that cobra venom CTXs form cognate complexes with other components that potentiate the toxic effects of the venom's individual component. This review focuses on the pharmacological mechanism of cobra venom CTXs and their complexes, highlighting their significance in cobra venom-induced pathophysiology and toxicity. Furthermore, the potency of commercial antivenoms in reversing the adverse effects of cobra venom CTXs and their complexes in envenomed victims has also been discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bhargab Kalita
- Amrita School of Nanosciences and Molecular Medicine, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Kochi 682041, India
| | - Yuri N. Utkin
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow 117997, Russia
| | - Ashis K. Mukherjee
- Institute of Advanced Study in Science and Technology, Guwahati 781035, India
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Tezpur University, Tezpur 784028, India
- Correspondence:
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9
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Offor BC, Muller B, Piater LA. A Review of the Proteomic Profiling of African Viperidae and Elapidae Snake Venoms and Their Antivenom Neutralisation. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14110723. [PMID: 36355973 PMCID: PMC9694588 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14110723] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2022] [Revised: 10/17/2022] [Accepted: 10/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Snakebite envenoming is a neglected tropical disease (NTD) that results from the injection of snake venom of a venomous snake into animals and humans. In Africa (mainly in sub-Saharan Africa), over 100,000 envenomings and over 10,000 deaths per annum from snakebite have been reported. Difficulties in snakebite prevention and antivenom treatment are believed to result from a lack of epidemiological data and underestimated figures on snakebite envenoming-related morbidity and mortality. There are species- and genus-specific variations associated with snake venoms in Africa and across the globe. These variations contribute massively to diverse differences in venom toxicity and pathogenicity that can undermine the efficacy of adopted antivenom therapies used in the treatment of snakebite envenoming. There is a need to profile all snake venom proteins of medically important venomous snakes endemic to Africa. This is anticipated to help in the development of safer and more effective antivenoms for the treatment of snakebite envenoming within the continent. In this review, the proteomes of 34 snake venoms from the most medically important snakes in Africa, namely the Viperidae and Elipdae, were extracted from the literature. The toxin families were grouped into dominant, secondary, minor, and others based on the abundance of the protein families in the venom proteomes. The Viperidae venom proteome was dominated by snake venom metalloproteinases (SVMPs-41%), snake venom serine proteases (SVSPs-16%), and phospholipase A2 (PLA2-17%) protein families, while three-finger toxins (3FTxs-66%) and PLA2s (16%) dominated those of the Elapidae. We further review the neutralisation of these snake venoms by selected antivenoms widely used within the African continent. The profiling of African snake venom proteomes will aid in the development of effective antivenom against snakebite envenoming and, additionally, could possibly reveal therapeutic applications of snake venom proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benedict C. Offor
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Johannesburg, Auckland Park 2006, South Africa
| | - Beric Muller
- South Africa Venom Suppliers CC, Louis Trichardt 0920, South Africa
| | - Lizelle A. Piater
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Johannesburg, Auckland Park 2006, South Africa
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +27-11-559-2403
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10
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Oliveira ISD, Pucca MB, Ferreira IG, Cerni FA, Jacob BDCDS, Wiezel GA, Pinheiro-Júnior EL, Cordeiro FA, Bordon KDCF, Arantes EC. State-of-the-art review of snake venom phosphodiesterases (svPDEs). Toxicon 2022; 217:121-130. [PMID: 35998712 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2022.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2022] [Revised: 08/01/2022] [Accepted: 08/02/2022] [Indexed: 10/15/2022]
Abstract
Phosphodiesterases (PDEs) constitute an enzyme group able to hydrolyze nucleic acids as well as some second messengers. Due to this ability and their expression in several human tissues and organs, PDEs can control a gamut of physiological processes. They are also involved in some pathological conditions, such as Alzheimer's disease and erectile dysfunction. PDEs are also expressed in snake venom glands, being called snake venoms phosphodiesterases, or simply svPDEs. The occurrence of these enzymes has already been reported in crotalid, elapid and viperid venoms, such as Crotalus, Naja and Trimeresurus, respectively, but not all of them have been characterized concerning their structure, activity and function. In this review, we are addressing general characteristics of svPDEs, in addition to their structural, biochemical and functional characteristics, and we also report some potential applications of svPDEs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isadora Sousa de Oliveira
- Department of BioMolecular Sciences, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil.
| | - Manuela Berto Pucca
- Medical School, Federal University of Roraima, Boa Vista, RR, Brazil; Health Sciences Postgraduate Program, Federal University of Roraima, Boa Vista, RR, Brazil
| | - Isabela Gobbo Ferreira
- Department of BioMolecular Sciences, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Felipe Augusto Cerni
- Health Sciences Postgraduate Program, Federal University of Roraima, Boa Vista, RR, Brazil
| | - Beatriz de Cássia da Silva Jacob
- Department of BioMolecular Sciences, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Gisele Adriano Wiezel
- Department of BioMolecular Sciences, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Ernesto Lopes Pinheiro-Júnior
- Department of BioMolecular Sciences, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Francielle Almeida Cordeiro
- Department of BioMolecular Sciences, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Karla de Castro Figueiredo Bordon
- Department of BioMolecular Sciences, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Eliane Candiani Arantes
- Department of BioMolecular Sciences, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil.
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11
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Tan CH, Tan KY, Wong KY, Tan NH, Chong HP. Equatorial Spitting Cobra ( Naja sumatrana) from Malaysia (Negeri Sembilan and Penang), Southern Thailand, and Sumatra: Comparative Venom Proteomics, Immunoreactivity and Cross-Neutralization by Antivenom. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14080522. [PMID: 36006183 PMCID: PMC9414237 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14080522] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2022] [Revised: 07/20/2022] [Accepted: 07/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The Equatorial Spitting Cobra (Naja sumatrana) is a medically important venomous snake species in Southeast Asia. Its wide geographical distribution implies potential intra-specific venom variation, while there is no species-specific antivenom available to treat its envenoming. Applying a protein-decomplexing proteomic approach, the study showed that three-finger toxins (3FTX), followed by phospholipases A2 (PLA2), were the major proteins well-conserved across N. sumatrana venoms of different locales. Variations were noted in the subtypes and relative abundances of venom proteins. Of note, alpha-neurotoxins (belonging to 3FTX) are the least in the Penang specimen (Ns-PG, 5.41% of total venom proteins), compared with geographical specimens from Negeri Sembilan (Ns-NS, 14.84%), southern Thailand (Ns-TH, 16.05%) and Sumatra (Ns-SU, 10.81%). The alpha-neurotoxin abundance, in general, correlates with the venom’s lethal potency. The Thai Naja kaouthia Monovalent Antivenom (NkMAV) was found to be immunoreactive toward the N. sumatrana venoms and is capable of cross-neutralizing N. sumatrana venom lethality to varying degrees (potency = 0.49–0.92 mg/mL, interpreted as the amount of venom completely neutralized per milliliter of antivenom). The potency was lowest against NS-SU venom, implying variable antigenicity of its lethal alpha-neurotoxins. Together, the findings suggest the para-specific and geographical utility of NkMAV as treatment for N. sumatrana envenoming in Southeast Asia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Choo Hock Tan
- Venom Research and Toxicology Laboratory, Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia; (K.Y.W.); (H.P.C.)
- Correspondence: or
| | - Kae Yi Tan
- Protein and Interactomics Laboratory, Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia; (K.Y.T.); (N.H.T.)
| | - Kin Ying Wong
- Venom Research and Toxicology Laboratory, Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia; (K.Y.W.); (H.P.C.)
| | - Nget Hong Tan
- Protein and Interactomics Laboratory, Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia; (K.Y.T.); (N.H.T.)
| | - Ho Phin Chong
- Venom Research and Toxicology Laboratory, Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia; (K.Y.W.); (H.P.C.)
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12
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Salama WH, Shaheen MNF, Shahein YE. Egyptian cobra (Naja haje haje) venom phospholipase A2: a promising antiviral agent with potent virucidal activity against simian rotavirus and bovine coronavirus. Arch Microbiol 2022; 204:526. [PMID: 35895237 PMCID: PMC9326960 DOI: 10.1007/s00203-022-03139-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2022] [Revised: 07/06/2022] [Accepted: 07/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Viral infections are linked to a variety of human diseases. Despite the achievements made in drug and vaccine development, several viruses still lack preventive vaccines and efficient antiviral compounds. Thus, developing novel antiviral agents is of great concern, particularly the natural products that are promising candidates for such discoveries. In this study, we have purified an approximately 15 kDa basic phospholipase A2 (PLA2) enzyme from the Egyptian cobra Naja haje haje venom. The purified N. haje PLA2 showed a specific activity of 22 units/mg protein against 6 units/mg protein for the whole crude venom with 3.67-fold purification. The antiviral activity of purified N. haje PLA2 has been investigated in vitro against bovine coronavirus (BCoV) and simian rotavirus (RV SA-11). Our results showed that the CC50 of PLA2 were 33.6 and 29 µg/ml against MDBK and MA104 cell lines, respectively. Antiviral analysis of N. haje PLA2 showed an inhibition of BCoV and RV SA-11 infections with a therapeutic index equal to 33.6 and 16, respectively. Moreover, N. haje PLA2 decreased the BCoV and RV SA-11 titers by 4.25 log10 TCID50 and 2.5 log10 TCID50, respectively. Thus, this research suggests the potential antiviral activity of purified N. haje PLA2 against BCoV and RV SA-11 infections in vitro.
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Affiliation(s)
- Walaa H Salama
- Molecular Biology Department, Biotechnology Research Institute, National Research Centre, Dokki, Cairo, 12622, Egypt.
| | - Mohamed N F Shaheen
- Environmental Virology Laboratory, Water Pollution Research Department, Environment and Climate Change Research Institute, National Research Centre, Dokki, Cairo, 12622, Egypt
| | - Yasser E Shahein
- Molecular Biology Department, Biotechnology Research Institute, National Research Centre, Dokki, Cairo, 12622, Egypt
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13
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Ong HL, Tan CH, Lee LP, Khor SM, Tan KY. An immunodetection assay developed using cobra cytotoxin-specific antibodies: Potential diagnostics for cobra envenoming. Toxicon 2022; 216:157-168. [PMID: 35868411 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2022.07.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2022] [Revised: 07/13/2022] [Accepted: 07/15/2022] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
Cobra (Naja spp.) envenoming is a life-threatening medical emergency, and a correct diagnosis is crucial to initiating timely and appropriate antivenom treatment. However, snakebite diagnostics remain unavailable in Southeast Asia. This study, therefore, developed an immunodetection assay with a potential diagnostic application for cobra envenoming. The cytotoxin of Naja kaouthia (Thai Monocled Cobra) (Nk-CTX) was purified from its venom to produce CTX-specific antibodies in rabbits and chickens. A double-antibody sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay was developed using the purified anti-Nk-CTX antibodies (immunoglobulin G and immunoglobulin Y), and its selectivity, specificity, and sensitivity for the venoms of five major cobra species in Southeast Asia (N. kaouthia, Naja sumatrana, Naja sputatrix, and Naja siamensis, Naja philippinensis) were studied. The results showed the immunoassay discriminates cobra venoms from other species commonly implicated in snakebites in Southeast Asia, i.e., the Malayan Krait, Many-banded Krait, King Cobra, Eastern Russell's Viper, Malayan Pit Viper and White-lipped Pit Viper. The immunoassay has a high sensitivity for the five cobra venoms, with detection limits (LoD) ranging from 0.6 to 2.6 ng/ml. Together, the findings suggest the potential diagnostic application of the cytotoxin immunoassay for cobra envenoming. The immunoassay was found to exhibit high immunoreactivity toward ten Asiatic cobra venoms (absorbance>1.5), in contrast to African cobra venoms with low immunoreactivity (absorbance<0.9). Considering the varying CTX antigenicity between Asiatic and African cobras, the immunoassay for African cobras should utilize antibodies produced specifically from the cytotoxins of African cobra venoms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hui Ling Ong
- Protein and Interactomics Lab, Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, 50603, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Choo Hock Tan
- Venom Research and Toxicology Lab, Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, 50603, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Louisa Pernee Lee
- Venom Research and Toxicology Lab, Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, 50603, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Sook Mei Khor
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Malaya, 50603, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Kae Yi Tan
- Protein and Interactomics Lab, Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, 50603, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
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14
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Hiu JJ, Yap MKK. The myth of cobra venom cytotoxin: More than just direct cytolytic actions. Toxicon X 2022; 14:100123. [PMID: 35434602 PMCID: PMC9011113 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxcx.2022.100123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2021] [Revised: 03/03/2022] [Accepted: 03/31/2022] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Cobra venom cytotoxin (CTX) is a non-enzymatic three-finger toxin that constitutes 40-60% of cobra venom. Thus, it plays an important role in the pathophysiology of cobra envenomation, especially in local dermonecrosis. The three-finger hydrophobic loops of CTX determine the cytotoxicity. Nevertheless, the actual mechanisms of cytotoxicity are not fully elucidated as they involve not only cytolytic actions but also intracellular signalling-mediated cell death pathways. Furthermore, the possible transition cell death pattern remains to be explored. The actual molecular mechanisms require further studies to unveil the relationship between different CTXs from different cobra species and cell types which may result in differential cell death patterns. Here, we discuss the biophysical interaction of CTX with the cell membrane involving four binding modes: electrostatic interaction, hydrophobic partitioning, isotropic phase, and oligomerisation. Oligomerisation of CTX causes pore formation in the membrane lipid bilayer. Additionally, the CTX-induced apoptotic pathway can be executed via death receptor-mediated extrinsic pathways and mitochondrial-mediated intrinsic pathways. We also discuss lysosomal-mediated necrosis and the occurrence of necroptosis following CTX action. Collectively, we provided an insight into concentration-dependent transition of cell death pattern which involves different mechanistic actions. This contributes a new direction for further investigation of cytotoxic pathways activated by the CTXs for future development of biotherapeutics targeting pathological effects caused by CTX.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jia Jin Hiu
- School of Science, Monash University Malaysia, Bandar Sunway, Malaysia
| | - Michelle Khai Khun Yap
- School of Science, Monash University Malaysia, Bandar Sunway, Malaysia.,Tropical Medicine and Biology Multidisciplinary Platform, Monash University Malaysia, Bandar Sunway, Malaysia
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15
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Chong HP, Tan KY, Liu BS, Sung WC, Tan CH. Cytotoxicity of Venoms and Cytotoxins from Asiatic Cobras (Naja kaouthia, Naja sumatrana, Naja atra) and Neutralization by Antivenoms from Thailand, Vietnam, and Taiwan. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14050334. [PMID: 35622581 PMCID: PMC9144634 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14050334] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2022] [Revised: 05/03/2022] [Accepted: 05/04/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Envenoming by cobras (Naja spp.) often results in extensive local tissue necrosis when optimal treatment with antivenom is not available. This study investigated the cytotoxicity of venoms and purified cytotoxins from the Monocled Cobra (Naja kaouthia), Taiwan Cobra (Naja atra), and Equatorial Spitting Cobra (Naja sumatrana) in a mouse fibroblast cell line, followed by neutralization of the cytotoxicity by three regional antivenoms: the Thai Naja kaouthia monovalent antivenom (NkMAV), Vietnamese snake antivenom (SAV) and Taiwanese Neuro bivalent antivenom (NBAV). The cytotoxins of N. atra (NA-CTX) and N. sumatrana (NS-CTX) were identified as P-type cytotoxins, whereas that of N. kaouthia (NK-CTX) is S-type. All venoms and purified cytotoxins demonstrated varying concentration-dependent cytotoxicity in the following trend: highest for N. atra, followed by N. sumatrana and N. kaouthia. The antivenoms moderately neutralized the cytotoxicity of N. kaouthia venom but were weak against N. atra and N. sumatrana venom cytotoxicity. The neutralization potencies of the antivenoms against the cytotoxins were varied and generally low across NA-CTX, NS-CTX, and NK-CTX, possibly attributed to limited antigenicity of CTXs and/or different formulation of antivenom products. The study underscores the need for antivenom improvement and/or new therapies in treating local tissue toxicity caused by cobra envenomings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ho Phin Chong
- Venom Research and Toxicology Laboratory, Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia;
| | - Kae Yi Tan
- Protein and Interactomics Laboratory, Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia;
| | - Bing-Sin Liu
- National Institute of Infectious Diseases and Vaccinology, National Health Research Institutes, Miaoli 35053, Taiwan;
| | - Wang-Chou Sung
- National Institute of Infectious Diseases and Vaccinology, National Health Research Institutes, Miaoli 35053, Taiwan;
- Correspondence: (W.-C.S.); (C.H.T.)
| | - Choo Hock Tan
- Venom Research and Toxicology Laboratory, Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia;
- Correspondence: (W.-C.S.); (C.H.T.)
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16
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Snake Venomics: Fundamentals, Recent Updates, and a Look to the Next Decade. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14040247. [PMID: 35448856 PMCID: PMC9028316 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14040247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2022] [Revised: 03/18/2022] [Accepted: 03/21/2022] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Venomic research, powered by techniques adapted from proteomics, transcriptomics, and genomics, seeks to unravel the diversity and complexity of venom through which knowledge can be applied in the treatment of envenoming, biodiscovery, and conservation. Snake venom proteomics is most extensively studied, but the methods varied widely, creating a massive amount of information which complicates data comparison and interpretation. Advancement in mass spectrometry technology, accompanied by growing databases and sophisticated bioinformatic tools, has overcome earlier limitations of protein identification. The progress, however, remains challenged by limited accessibility to samples, non-standardized quantitative methods, and biased interpretation of -omic data. Next-generation sequencing (NGS) technologies enable high-throughput venom-gland transcriptomics and genomics, complementing venom proteomics by providing deeper insights into the structural diversity, differential expression, regulation and functional interaction of the toxin genes. Venomic tissue sampling is, however, difficult due to strict regulations on wildlife use and transfer of biological materials in some countries. Limited resources for techniques and funding are among other pertinent issues that impede the progress of venomics, particularly in less developed regions and for neglected species. Genuine collaboration between international researchers, due recognition of regional experts by global organizations (e.g., WHO), and improved distribution of research support, should be embraced.
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17
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Palasuberniam P, Chan YW, Tan KY, Tan CH. Snake Venom Proteomics of Samar Cobra (Naja samarensis) from the Southern Philippines: Short Alpha-Neurotoxins as the Dominant Lethal Component Weakly Cross-Neutralized by the Philippine Cobra Antivenom. Front Pharmacol 2022; 12:727756. [PMID: 35002690 PMCID: PMC8740184 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2021.727756] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2021] [Accepted: 11/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The Samar Cobra, Naja samarensis, is endemic to the southern Philippines and is a WHO-listed Category 1 venomous snake species of medical importance. Envenomation caused by N. samarensis results in neurotoxicity, while there is no species-specific antivenom available for its treatment. The composition and neutralization of N. samarensis venom remain largely unknown to date. This study thus aimed to investigate the venom proteome of N. samarensis for a comprehensive profiling of the venom composition, and to examine the immunorecognition as well as neutralization of its toxins by a hetero-specific antivenom. Applying C18 reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC) and tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS), three-finger toxins (3FTx) were shown to dominate the venom proteome by 90.48% of total venom proteins. Other proteins in the venom comprised snake venom metalloproteinases, phospholipases A2, cysteine-rich secretory proteins, venom nerve growth factors, L-amino acid oxidases and vespryn, which were present at much lower abundances. Among all, short-chain alpha-neurotoxins (SαNTX) were the most highly expressed toxin within 3FTx family, constituting 65.87% of the total venom proteins. The SαNTX is the sole neurotoxic component of the venom and has an intravenous median lethal dose (LD50) of 0.18 μg/g in mice. The high abundance and low LD50 support the potent lethal activity of N. samarensis venom. The hetero-specific antivenom, Philippine Cobra Antivenom (PCAV, raised against Naja philippinensis) were immunoreactive toward the venom and its protein fractions, including the principal SαNTX. In efficacy study, PCAV was able to cross-neutralize the lethality of SαNTX albeit the effect was weak with a low potency of 0.20 mg/ml (defined as the amount of toxin completely neutralized per milliliter of the antivenom). With a volume of 5 ml, each vial of PCAV may cross-neutralize approximately 1 mg of the toxin in vivo. The findings support the potential para-specific use of PCAV in treating envenomation caused by N. samarensis while underscoring the need to improve the potency of its neutralization activity, especially against the highly lethal alpha-neurotoxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Praneetha Palasuberniam
- Venom Research and Toxicology Laboratory, Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.,Department of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University Malaysia Sabah, Kota Kinabalu, Malaysia
| | - Yi Wei Chan
- Protein and Interactomics Laboratory, Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Kae Yi Tan
- Protein and Interactomics Laboratory, Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Choo Hock Tan
- Venom Research and Toxicology Laboratory, Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
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18
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BthTX-II from Bothrops jararacussu venom has variants with different oligomeric assemblies: An example of snake venom phospholipases A 2 versatility. Int J Biol Macromol 2021; 191:255-266. [PMID: 34547312 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2021.09.083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2021] [Revised: 09/10/2021] [Accepted: 09/13/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Phospholipases A2 (PLA2s) are found in almost every venomous snake family. In snakebites, some PLA2s can quickly cause local myonecrosis, which may lead to permanent sequelae if antivenom is administered belatedly. They hydrolyse phospholipids in membranes through a catalytic calcium ions-dependent mechanism. BthTX-II is a basic PLA2 and the second major component in the venom of Bothrops jararacussu. Herein, using the software SEQUENCE SLIDER, which integrates crystallographic, mass spectrometry and genetic data, we characterized the primary, tertiary and quaternary structure of two BthTX-II variants (called a and b), which diverge in 7 residues. Crystallographic structure BthTX-IIa is in a Tense-state with its distorted calcium binding loop buried in the dimer interface, contrarily, the novel BthTX-IIb structure is a monomer in a Relax-state with a fatty acid in the hydrophobic channel. Structural data in solution reveals that both variants are monomeric in neutral physiological conditions and mostly dimeric in an acidic environment, being catalytic active in both situations. Therefore, we propose two myotoxic mechanisms for BthTX-II, a catalytic one associated with the monomeric assembly, whereas the other has a calcium independent activity related to its C-terminal region, adopting a dimeric conformation similar to PLA2-like proteins.
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19
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Jega AY, Abdullahi MI, Musa AM, Kaita HA, Mzozoyana V, Emmanuel AA. Biochemical evaluation and molecular docking assessment of glucosamines from Neocarya macrophylla fruits against Naja nigricollis venom. Carbohydr Res 2021; 509:108436. [PMID: 34507178 DOI: 10.1016/j.carres.2021.108436] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2021] [Revised: 08/29/2021] [Accepted: 08/31/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Two new glucosamines, Microphyllose A and B were isolated from the chloroform fraction of Neocarya macrophylla fruit using flash column chromatography. The structures of these compounds were elucidated based on chemical tests and the analysis of their spectral data (IR, 1D- & 2D-NMR). The compounds have demonstrated significant (p < 0.05) antivenom activity against Naja nigricollis venom with 60 and 80% protection, respectively. When subjected to molecular docking, the compounds have demonstrated different binding affinities against three toxins (phospholipase A2, neurotoxin and cardiotoxin) from Naja nigricollis venom and they were further screened for ADMET analysis based on Lipinski's and Veber's rule and the compounds have failed absorptivity for oral medications. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of isolation and molecular docking analysis of these compounds from medicinal plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amina Yusuf Jega
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto, Nigeria.
| | - Musa Ismail Abdullahi
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto, Nigeria
| | - Aliyu M Musa
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria
| | - Haruna A Kaita
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria
| | - Vuyisa Mzozoyana
- School of Chemistry and Physics, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Westville, Durban, South Africa
| | - Adegboyega Abayomi Emmanuel
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Basic Medical Sciences, College of Health Sciences, University of Jos, Nigeria
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20
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Wong KY, Tan KY, Tan NH, Gnanathasan CA, Tan CH. Elucidating the Venom Diversity in Sri Lankan Spectacled Cobra ( Naja naja) through De Novo Venom Gland Transcriptomics, Venom Proteomics and Toxicity Neutralization. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:558. [PMID: 34437429 PMCID: PMC8402536 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13080558] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2021] [Revised: 08/01/2021] [Accepted: 08/05/2021] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Inadequate effectiveness of Indian antivenoms in treating envenomation caused by the Spectacled Cobra/Indian Cobra (Naja naja) in Sri Lanka has been attributed to geographical variations in the venom composition. This study investigated the de novo venom-gland transcriptomics and venom proteomics of the Sri Lankan N. naja (NN-SL) to elucidate its toxin gene diversity and venom variability. The neutralization efficacy of a commonly used Indian antivenom product in Sri Lanka was examined against the lethality induced by NN-SL venom in mice. The transcriptomic study revealed high expression of 22 toxin genes families in NN-SL, constituting 46.55% of total transcript abundance. Three-finger toxins (3FTX) were the most diversely and abundantly expressed (87.54% of toxin gene expression), consistent with the dominance of 3FTX in the venom proteome (72.19% of total venom proteins). The 3FTX were predominantly S-type cytotoxins/cardiotoxins (CTX) and α-neurotoxins of long-chain or short-chain subtypes (α-NTX). CTX and α-NTX are implicated in local tissue necrosis and fatal neuromuscular paralysis, respectively, in envenomation caused by NN-SL. Intra-species variations in the toxin gene sequences and expression levels were apparent between NN-SL and other geographical specimens of N. naja, suggesting potential antigenic diversity that impacts antivenom effectiveness. This was demonstrated by limited potency (0.74 mg venom/ml antivenom) of the Indian polyvalent antivenom (VPAV) in neutralizing the NN-SL venom. A pan-regional antivenom with improved efficacy to treat N. naja envenomation is needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kin Ying Wong
- Venom Research and Toxicology Laboratory, Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia;
| | - Kae Yi Tan
- Protein and Interactomics Laboratory, Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia;
| | - Nget Hong Tan
- Protein and Interactomics Laboratory, Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia;
| | | | - Choo Hock Tan
- Venom Research and Toxicology Laboratory, Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia;
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What's in a mass? Biochem Soc Trans 2021; 49:1027-1037. [PMID: 33929513 DOI: 10.1042/bst20210288] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2021] [Revised: 03/27/2021] [Accepted: 03/30/2021] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
This short essay pretends to make the reader reflect on the concept of biological mass and on the added value that the determination of this molecular property of a protein brings to the interpretation of evolutionary and translational snake venomics research. Starting from the premise that the amino acid sequence is the most distinctive primary molecular characteristics of any protein, the thesis underlying the first part of this essay is that the isotopic distribution of a protein's molecular mass serves to unambiguously differentiate it from any other of an organism's proteome. In the second part of the essay, we discuss examples of collaborative projects among our laboratories, where mass profiling of snake venom PLA2 across conspecific populations played a key role revealing dispersal routes that determined the current phylogeographic pattern of the species.
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Sánchez A, Segura Á, Pla D, Munuera J, Villalta M, Quesada-Bernat S, Chavarría D, Herrera M, Gutiérrez JM, León G, Calvete JJ, Vargas M. Comparative venomics and preclinical efficacy evaluation of a monospecific Hemachatus antivenom towards sub-Saharan Africa cobra venoms. J Proteomics 2021; 240:104196. [PMID: 33775842 DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2021.104196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2021] [Revised: 03/16/2021] [Accepted: 03/18/2021] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Cobras are the most medically important elapid snakes in Africa. The African genera Naja and Hemachatus include snakes with neurotoxic and cytotoxic venoms, with shared biochemical, toxinological and antigenic characteristics. We have studied the antigenic cross-reactivity of four sub-Saharan Africa cobra venoms against an experimental monospecific Hemachatus haemachatus antivenom through comparative proteomics, preclinical assessment of neutralization, and third generation antivenomics. The venoms of H. haemachatus, N. annulifera, N. mossambica and N. nigricollis share an overall qualitative family toxin composition but depart in their proportions of three-finger toxin (3FTxs) classes, phospholipases A2 (PLA2s), snake venom metalloproteinases (SVMPs), and cysteine-rich secretory proteins (CRISPs). A monospecific anti-Hemachatus antivenom produced by Costa Rican Instituto Clodomiro Picado neutralized the lethal activity of the homologous and heterologous neuro/cytotoxic (H. haemachatus) and cyto/cardiotoxic (N. mossambica and N. nigricollis) venoms of the three spitting cobras sampled, while it was ineffective against the lethal and toxic activities of the neurotoxic venom of the non-spitting snouted cobra N. annulifera. The ability of the anti-Hemachatus-ICP antivenom to neutralize toxic (dermonecrotic and anticoagulant) and enzymatic (PLA2) activities of spitting cobra venoms suggested a closer kinship of H. haemachatus and Naja subgenus Afrocobra spitting cobras than to Naja subgenus Uraeus neurotoxic taxa. These results were confirmed by third generation antivenomics. BIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE: African Naja species represent the most widespread medically important elapid snakes across Africa. To gain deeper insight into the spectrum of medically relevant toxins, we compared the proteome of three spitting cobras (Hemachatus haemachatus, Naja mossambica and N. nigricollis) and one non-spitting cobra (N. annulifera). Three finger toxins and phospholipases A2 are the two major protein families among the venoms analyzed. The development of antivenoms of broad species coverage is an urgent need in sub-Saharan Africa. An equine antivenom raised against H. haemachatus venom showed cross-reactivity with the venoms of H. haemachatus, N. mossambica and N. nigricollis, while having poor recognition of the venom of N. annulifera. This immunological information provides clues for the design of optimum venom mixtures for the preparation of broad spectrum antivenoms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrés Sánchez
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica.
| | - Álvaro Segura
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Davinia Pla
- Laboratorio de Venómica Evolutiva y Traslacional, Instituto de Biomedicina de Valencia, CSIC, Valencia, Spain
| | - José Munuera
- Laboratorio de Venómica Evolutiva y Traslacional, Instituto de Biomedicina de Valencia, CSIC, Valencia, Spain; Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieria Agronómica y del Medio Natural, Universitat Politècnica de València, Valencia, Spain
| | - Mauren Villalta
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Sarai Quesada-Bernat
- Laboratorio de Venómica Evolutiva y Traslacional, Instituto de Biomedicina de Valencia, CSIC, Valencia, Spain
| | | | - María Herrera
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - José María Gutiérrez
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Guillermo León
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Juan J Calvete
- Laboratorio de Venómica Evolutiva y Traslacional, Instituto de Biomedicina de Valencia, CSIC, Valencia, Spain.
| | - Mariángela Vargas
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
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