Dietary Risk Assessment and Consumer Awareness of Mycotoxins among Household Consumers of Cereals, Nuts and Legumes in North-Central Nigeria

Recent Progress of Mycotoxin in Various Food Products-Human Exposure and Health Risk Assessment

Mycotoxins, as prevalent contaminants in the food chain, exhibit diverse toxicological effects on both animals and humans. Chronic dietary exposure to mycotoxin-contaminated foods may result in the bioaccumulation of these toxins, posing substantial public health risks. This review systematically examines the contamination patterns of mycotoxins across major food categories, including cereals and related products, animal-derived foods, fruits, and medical food materials. Furthermore, we critically evaluated two methodological frameworks for assessing mycotoxin exposure risks: (1) dietary exposure models integrating contamination levels and consumption data and (2) human biomonitoring approaches quantifying mycotoxin biomarkers in biological samples. A key contribution lies in the stratified analysis of exposure disparities among population subgroups (adults, teenagers, children, and infants). Additionally, we summarize current research on the relationship between human mycotoxin biomonitoring and associated health impacts, with a particular emphasis on vulnerable groups such as pregnant women and infants. By elucidating the challenges inherent in existing studies, this synthesis provides a roadmap for advancing risk characterization and evidence-based food safety interventions.

Curcumin: A Potential Detoxifier Against Chemical and Natural Toxicants

The human body gets exposed to a variety of toxins intentionally or unintentionally on a regular basis from sources such as air, water, food, and soil. Certain toxins can be synthetic, while some are biological. The toxins affect the various parts of the body by activating numerous pro-inflammatory markers, like oxidative stresses, that tend to disturb the normal function of the organs ultimately. Nowadays, people use different types of herbal treatments, viz., herbal drinks that contain different spices for detoxification of their bodies. One such example is turmeric, the most commonly available spice in the kitchen and used across all kinds of households. Turmeric contains curcumin, which is a natural polyphenol. Curcumin is a medicinal compound with different biological activities, such as antioxidant, antineoplastic, anti-inflammatory, and antibacterial. Hence, this review gives a comprehensive insight into the promising potential of curcumin in the detoxification of heavy metals, carbon tetrachloride, drugs, alcohol, acrylamide, mycotoxins, nicotine, and plastics. The review encompasses diverse animal-based studies portraying curcumin's role in nullifying the different toxic effects in various organs of the body (especially the liver, kidney, testicles, and brain) by enhancing defensive signaling pathways, improving antioxidant enzyme levels, inhibiting pro-inflammatory markers activities and so on. Furthermore, this review also argues over curcumin's safety assessment for its utilization as a detoxifying agent.

Mycotoxin exposure through the consumption of processed cereal food for children (< 5 years old) from rural households of Oshana, a region of Namibia

Mycotoxin exposure from contaminated food is a significant global health issue, particularly among vulnerable children. Given limited data on mycotoxin exposure among Namibian children, this study investigated mycotoxin types and levels in foods, evaluated dietary mycotoxin exposure from processed cereal foods in children under age five from rural households in Oshana region, Namibia. Mycotoxins in cereal-based food samples (n = 162) (mahangu flour (n = 35), sorghum flour (n = 13), mahangu thin/thick porridge (n = 54), oshikundu (n = 56), and omungome (n = 4)) were determined by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1, 35.8%), zearalenone (27.2%), fumonisin B1 (FB1, 24.1%), citrinin (CIT, 12.4%) and deoxynivalenol (10.5%) were the major mycotoxins quantified. Food samples (35.8% (n = 58) and 6.2% (n = 10)) exceeded the 0.1 µg/kg AFB1 and 200 µg/kg FB1 EU limit for children's food, respectively. Several emerging mycotoxins including the neurotoxic 3-nitropropionic acid, moniliformin (MON), and tenuazonic acid were quantified in over 50% of all samples. Co-occurrence of AFB1, CIT, and FB1 detected in 4.9% (n = 8) samples, which could heighten food safety concerns. Regarding exposure assessment and risk characterization, average probable dietary intake for AFB1 from all ready-to-eat-foods was 0.036 µg/kg bw/day, which resulted in margin of exposures (MOE) of 11 and 0.65 risk cancer cases/year/100,000 people, indicating a risk of chronic aflatoxicosis. High tolerable daily intake values for FB1, and MOE for beauvericin and MON exceeded reference values. Consumption of a diversified diet and interventions including timely planting and harvesting, best grain storage, and other standard postharvest food handling practices are needed to mitigate mycotoxin exposure through contaminated cereal foods and to safeguard the health of the rural children in Namibia.

Health risks evaluation of mycotoxins in plant-based supplements marketed in Malaysia

Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolites produced by fungi, pose significant health risks when present in plant-based supplements (PBS), necessitating thorough risk assessment to ensure consumer safety. This study evaluates the health risks associated with mycotoxins, specifically aflatoxins (AFB1, AFB2) and ochratoxin A (OTA), in PBS sold in Malaysia. Contamination levels of AFB1, AFB2, and OTA were quantified in 14 PBS samples using Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry. All samples tested positive for AFB2, while 28.57% and 42.86% tested positive for AFB1 and OTA, respectively with some levels exceeding the regulatory limits set by the Malaysian Food Act 1983 and European regulations. The estimated daily intake of these mycotoxins was calculated based on the recommended daily intake of each supplement. To assess risk, Margin of Exposure (MOE) values were determined, showing that all AFB2-positive samples had MOE values below the critical threshold of 10,000, indicating an urgent need for risk management. A quantitative cancer risk assessment also estimated the percentage of hepatocellular carcinoma and kidney cancer attributable to mycotoxin exposure. The findings emphasize the significant public health risks posed by mycotoxins, particularly in samples B2 and B10, where all three mycotoxins studied were present at concerning levels. This study highlights the urgent need for stricter regulations and better monitoring of mycotoxin levels in PBS to protect consumer's health.

Nutritional compounds and risk assessment of mycotoxins in ecological and conventional nuts

This comprehensive study aimed to determine the level of nutritional compounds (20 amino acids, 11 phenolic acids, and 8 vitamins) and hazard compounds (14 mycotoxins) in ten types of conventional and ecological nuts from 25 countries. Moreover, chronic and acute toxicological risk assessment of mycotoxins was performed. Examined constituents were determined using LC-MS/MS. Ecological pine nuts showed the highest level of amino acids (233.87 g kg-1) compared to conventional (207 g kg-1), pecans-phenolic acids (816.6 mg kg-1 in ecological and 761 mg kg-1 in conventional), while pistachios-vitamins (3471.4 mg kg-1 in ecological and 3098.4 mg kg-1 in conventional). Increased concentration of mycotoxins was determined in conventional peanuts (54 μg kg-1) and walnuts (49.9 μg kg-1). Children were the most exposed population to acute intoxication with HT-2 toxin in conventional pistachios (20.66% ARfD). The results confirmed the nutritional importance of ecological nuts and emphasized the need for continuous screening of mycotoxins.

The interplay of dietary mycotoxins and oncogenic viruses toward human carcinogenesis: a scoping review

BACKGROUND

Mycotoxins, fungal metabolites prevalent in many foods, are recognized for their role in carcinogenesis, especially when interacting with oncogenic viruses.

OBJECTIVES

This scoping review synthesizes current evidence on the human cancer risk associated with mycotoxin exposure and oncogenic virus infections.

METHODS

Searches were conducted on PubMed, Embase, and Web of Science. Studies were selected based on the PECOS framework. Data extraction involved narrative and qualitative presentation of findings, with meta-analysis where feasible. Risk of bias and outcome quality were assessed using the OHAT tool and GRADE approach.

RESULTS

From 25 included studies, 18 focused on aflatoxins and hepatitis viruses in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Four studies examined aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and human papilloma virus (HPV) in cervical cancer, while three investigated AFB1 with Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) in lymphomagenesis. The review highlights a significant synergistic effect between AFB1 and hepatitis B and C viruses in HCC development. Significant interactions between AFB1 and HPV, as well as AFB1 and EBV, were observed, but further research is needed.

CONCLUSIONS

The synergistic impact of mycotoxins and oncogenic viruses is a critical public health concern. Future research, especially prospective cohort studies and investigations into molecular mechanisms, is essential to address this complex issue.

Mycotoxins in plant-based beverages: An updated occurrence

Plant-based diets are founded on consuming of foods of plant origin, aiming to replace or restrict the consumption of foods of animal origin. These diets have become popular in recent years, gaining new adherents daily. However, consumption of plant-based foods, like plant-based beverages, is a route of exposure to contaminants, such as mycotoxins. Mycotoxins are known for their toxic potential, causing damage to human health. Therefore, this study aimed to present a review providing new data to the population on exposure to mycotoxins by consumption of plant-based beverages. Based on the data collected, the occurrence of 21 mycotoxins was reported in plant-based beverages from different food matrices. Concerning probable daily intake, the highest values refer to deoxynivalenol, tentoxin, and fumonisin B1. In terms of exposure to mycotoxins, plant-based beverages can be present greater exposure to consumers than milk. Despite this, plant-based beverages alone do not pose a risk to consumer health.

Exposure assessment and risk characterisation of aflatoxins in randomly collected rice samples from local markets of Hyderabad, India

Aflatoxin (AF) poisoning of staple foods, such as rice, is caused by fungal contamination by Aspergillus species. These AFs are genotoxic, carcinogenic and suppress the immune system. Hence, the present study was conducted to elucidate the prevalence of AF contamination in rice samples collected from local markets of Hyderabad, Telangana, India. The rice samples collected were analysed for AF by using HPLC-fluorescence detection (HPLC-FLD). Based on AF contamination levels and dietary intake of rice, the health risk was assessed by the margin of exposure (MOE) and liver cancer risk in adults, adolescence and children. The percentage detected contamination with AFB1 and AFB2 of rice samples was 54% and 34%, with the concentration ranging between 0-20.35 µg/kg and 0-1.54 µg/kg, respectively. Three rice samples exceeded the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) total AF acceptable limit of 15 µg/kg. The average MOE values were 53.73, 50.58 and 35.69 (all <10,000) for adults, adolescence and children, respectively. The average liver cancer risk associated with rice consumption in the population of Hyderabad was found to be 0.27, 0.28 and 0.40 hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) cases/year/100,000 individuals in adults, adolescence and children, respectively. This study revealed an adverse health risk to population of Hyderabad due to consumption of AF contaminated rice.

Review of the Terminology, Approaches, and Formulations Used in the Guidelines on Quantitative Risk Assessment of Chemical Hazards in Food

This paper reviews the published terminology, mathematical models, and the possible approaches used to characterise the risk of foodborne chemical hazards, particularly pesticides, metals, mycotoxins, acrylamide, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). The results confirmed the wide variability of the nomenclature used, e.g., 28 different ways of referencing exposure, 13 of cancer risk, or 9 of slope factor. On the other hand, a total of 16 equations were identified to formulate all the risk characterisation parameters of interest. Therefore, the present study proposes a terminology and formulation for some risk characterisation parameters based on the guidelines of international organisations and the literature review. The mathematical model used for non-genotoxic hazards is a ratio in all cases. However, the authors used the probability of cancer or different ratios, such as the margin of exposure (MOE) for genotoxic hazards. For each effect studied per hazard, the non-genotoxic effect was mostly studied in pesticides (79.73%), the genotoxic effect was mostly studied in PAHs (71.15%), and both effects were mainly studied in metals (59.4%). The authors of the works reviewed generally opted for a deterministic approach, although most of those who assessed the risk for mycotoxins or the ratio and risk for acrylamide used the probabilistic approach.

Assessment of dietary exposure and levels of mycotoxins in sorghum from Niger State of Nigeria

This study reports levels of mycotoxins in sorghum from Niger State, Nigeria, and provides a comprehensive assessment of their potential health risks by combining mycotoxin levels and dietary exposure assessment. A total of 240 samples of red and white sorghum were collected from both stores and markets across four microclimatic zones. Fungal species were identified using a dilution plate method. Aflatoxins (AFs), deoxynivalenol, nivalenol, and ochratoxin (OTA) were quantified using HPLC, whereas cyclopiazonic acid, fumonisins (FUMs) and zearalenone were quantified using ELISA. A. flavus and A. fumigatus were dominant fungal species followed by F. verticilloides, A. oryzae and P. verrucosum. Aflatoxins (mean: 29.97 µg/kg) were detected in all samples, whereas OTA (mean: 37.5 µg/kg) and FUMs (mean: 3269.8 µg/kg) were detected in 72% and 50% of the samples, respectively. Mycotoxins frequently co-occurred in binary mixtures of AFs + OTA and AFs + FUMs. Dietary exposure estimates were highest for FUMs at 230% of TDI and margin of exposures (MOEs) for both AFs and OTA (<10,000) indicating a potential risk associated with combined exposure to AFs and OTA. The Risk of hepatocellular carcinoma cases (HCC/year) attributable to AFs and OTA exposure from sorghum was estimated to be 5.99 × 105 and 0.24 × 105 cases for HBsAg + individuals based on 13.6% HBV incidence. Similarly, the HCC/year for AFs and OTA were assessed to be 3.59 × 105 and 0.14 × 105 at an 8.1% prevalence rate. Therefore, the results of this study demonstrate the high prevalence and dietary exposure to mycotoxins through sorghum consumption, raising public health and trade concerns.

On the Potential Role of the (Pseudo-) Jahn-Teller Effect in the Membrane Transport Processes: Enniatin B and Beauvericin

The molecular structure of mycotoxins enniatin B and beauvericin, which are used as ionophores, was studied using density functional theory in various symmetry groups and singly charged states. We have shown that the charge addition or removal causes significant structural changes. Unlike the neutral C3 molecules, the stability of the charged C1 structures was explained by the Jahn-Teller or Pseudo-Jahn-Teller effect. This finding agrees with the available experimental X-ray structures of their metal complexes where electron density transfer from the metal can be expected. Hence, the membrane permeability of metal sandwich-structure complexes possessing antimicrobial activities is modulated by the conformational changes.

Aflatoxin Contamination: An Overview on Health Issues, Detection and Management Strategies

Aflatoxins (AFs) represent one of the main mycotoxins produced by Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus, with the most prevalent and lethal subtypes being AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, and AFG2. AFs are responsible for causing significant public health issues and economic concerns that affect consumers and farmers globally. Chronic exposure to AFs has been linked to liver cancer, oxidative stress, and fetal growth abnormalities among other health-related risks. Although there are various technologies, such as physical, chemical, and biological controls that have been employed to alleviate the toxic effects of AF, there is still no clearly elucidated universal method available to reduce AF levels in food and feed; the only mitigation is early detection of the toxin in the management of AF contamination. Numerous detection methods, including cultures, molecular techniques, immunochemical, electrochemical immunosensor, chromatographic, and spectroscopic means, are used to determine AF contamination in agricultural products. Recent research has shown that incorporating crops with higher resistance, such as sorghum, into animal feed can reduce the risk of AF contamination in milk and cheese. This review provides a current overview of the health-related risks of chronic dietary AF exposure, recent detection techniques, and management strategies to guide future researchers in developing better detection and management strategies for this toxin.

Quantitative assessment of aflatoxin exposure and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) risk associated with consumption of select Nigerian staple foods

Aflatoxin contamination of staple grains and legumes has been linked to hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) and other adverse health outcomes, constituting a substantial public health concern globally. Low-resource food environments in sub-Saharan Africa are often under-regulated and are particularly vulnerable to adverse health and nutrition outcomes associated with aflatoxin exposure. This study identifies levels of HCC risk in the northern Nigerian adult population, leveraging a systematic review of available evidence on aflatoxin contamination in Nigerian maize, groundnut, rice, cowpea, and soybean. Estimated dietary intake (EDI) was computed using publicly available dietary consumption data and a probabilistic quantitative risk assessment was conducted to determine the relative risk of HCC associated with consumption of selected aflatoxin-contaminated commodities. In total, 41 eligible studies reporting aflatoxin contamination were used to model the distribution of aflatoxin concentrations in Nigerian commodities. EDIs for maize, groundnut, rice, and cowpea exceeded the provisional maximum tolerable daily intake (PMTDI) level of 1 kgbw-1 day-1, with maize yielding the highest mean EDI (36.7 kgbw-1 day-1). The quantitative risk assessment estimated that 1.77, 0.44, 0.43, 0.15, and 0.01 HCC cases per year/100,000 population were attributable to aflatoxin exposure through maize, groundnut, rice, cowpea, and soybean, respectively. Sensitivity analysis revealed that aflatoxin concentration, dietary consumption levels, consumption frequency, and other variables have differing relative contributions to HCC risk across commodities. These findings constitute a novel multi-study risk assessment approach in the Nigerian context and substantiate existing evidence suggesting that there is reason for public health concern regarding aflatoxin exposure in the Nigerian population.

Occurrence of aflatoxins in nuts and peanut butter imported to UAE

Nuts are an important food group that contributes to maintaining health; however, they can be a source of exposure to aflatoxins. This study was conducted from 2017 to 2021 to assess the incidence of aflatoxins in nuts and nut products imported to the UAE from 57 countries. Associations between container type and processing technique and aflatoxin levels were also analyzed. A total of 5401 samples of pistachios, peanuts, peanut butter, and mixed nuts were examined using HPLC-FLD analysis in conjunction with immunoaffinity cleanup. In nuts, non-conformity was detected in samples imported from 32 different countries. Mean aflatoxin values for the non-compliant samples ranged from 81.0 to 92.7 μg/kg in pistachios, peanuts, and mixed nuts. A significant difference (p < 0.05) was found between mean aflatoxin levels in samples of peanut butter (29.3 μg/kg) compared to the other types of nuts. Nuts packed in containers made of fabric material had the highest mean aflatoxin levels of 108.1 μg/kg, while 29.7 μg/kg was the lowest mean level and was detected in nuts packed in glass. Ground samples had the highest aflatoxin levels (158.9 μg/kg) among processed products. This report will be valuable as a reference document in developing approaches to control nut importation and for establishing procedures that prevent food safety risks due to aflatoxin exposure. A need was underlined for the regulating authority to audit companies importing nuts, ensure safe practices are in place, and establish standards to minimize contamination and prevent the need for product rejection at the border.

Aflatoxin biocontrol in practice requires a multidisciplinary, long-term approach

One of the most elusive food safety problems is the contamination of staple crops with the highly carcinogenic aflatoxins produced by Aspergillus section Flavi fungi. Governments, farmers, institutions, consumers, and companies demand aflatoxin solutions. Many aflatoxin management technologies exist, but their real-life use and effectiveness is determined by diverse factors. Biocontrol products based on atoxigenic isolates of A. flavus can effectively reduce aflatoxins from field to fork. However, development, testing, and registration of this technology is a laborious process. Further, several barriers prevent the sustainable use of biocontrol products. There are challenges to have the products accepted, to make them available at scale and develop mechanisms for farmers to buy them, to have the products correctly used, to demonstrate their value, and to link farmers to buyers of aflatoxin-safe crops. Developing an effective aflatoxin management technology is the first, major step. The second one, perhaps more complicated and unfortunately seldomly discussed, is to develop mechanisms to have it used at scale, sustainably, and converged with other complementary technologies. Here, challenges and actions to scale the aflatoxin biocontrol technology in several countries in sub-Saharan Africa are described with a view to facilitating aflatoxin management efforts in Africa and beyond.

Introduction to This Special Issue of Toxins: Reduction and Control of Mycotoxins along Entire Food and Feed Chain

Contamination of food and feed by mycotoxins is considered a significant issue in food and feed safety worldwide [...].

Early-life chemical exposome and gut microbiome development: African research perspectives within a global environmental health context

The gut microbiome of neonates, infants, and toddlers (NITs) is very dynamic, and only begins to stabilize towards the third year of life. Within this period, exposure to xenobiotics may perturb the gut environment, thereby driving or contributing to microbial dysbiosis, which may negatively impact health into adulthood. Despite exposure of NITs globally, but especially in Africa, to copious amounts and types of xenobiotics - such as mycotoxins, pesticide residues, and heavy metals - little is known about their influence on the early-life microbiome or their effects on acute or long-term health. Within the African context, the influence of fermented foods, herbal mixtures, and the delivery environment on the early-life microbiome are often neglected, despite being potentially important factors that influence the microbiome. Consequently, data on in-depth understanding of the microbiome-exposome interactions is lacking in African cohorts. Collecting and evaluating such data is important because exposome-induced gut dysbiosis could potentially favor disease progression.

Trace analysis of emerging and regulated mycotoxins in infant stool by LC-MS/MS

Infants are sensitive to negative effects caused by food contaminants such as mycotoxins. To date, analytical methods assessing mycotoxin mixture exposure in infant stool are absent. Herein, we present a novel multi-mycotoxin LC-MS/MS assay capable of detecting 30+ analytes including the regulated mycotoxin classes (aflatoxins, trichothecenes, ochratoxins, zearalenone, citrinin), emerging Alternaria and Fusarium toxins, and several key metabolites. Sample preparation consisted of a 'dilute, filter, and shoot' approach. The method was in-house validated and demonstrated that 25 analytes fulfilled all required criteria despite the high diversity of chemical structures included. Extraction recoveries for most of the analytes were in the range of 65-114% with standard deviations below 30% and limits of detection between 0.03 and 11.3 ng/g dry weight. To prove the methods' applicability, 22 human stool samples from premature Austrian infants (n = 12) and 12-month-old Nigerian infants (n = 10) were analyzed. The majority of the Nigerian samples were contaminated with alternariol monomethyl ether (8/10) and fumonisin B1 (8/10), while fumonisin B2 and citrinin were quantified in some samples. No mycotoxins were detected in any of the Austrian samples. The method can be used for sensitive human biomonitoring (HBM) purposes and to support exposure and, potentially, risk assessment of mycotoxins. Moreover, it allows for investigating potential associations between toxicant exposure and the infants' developing gut microbiome.

Aflatoxins in Maize: Can Their Occurrence Be Effectively Managed in Africa in the Face of Climate Change and Food Insecurity?

The dangers of population-level mycotoxin exposure have been well documented. Climate-sensitive aflatoxins (AFs) are important food hazards. The continual effects of climate change are projected to impact primary agricultural systems, and consequently food security. This will be due to a reduction in yield with a negative influence on food safety. The African climate and subsistence farming techniques favour the growth of AF-producing fungal genera particularly in maize, which is a food staple commonly associated with mycotoxin contamination. Predictive models are useful tools in the management of mycotoxin risk. Mycotoxin climate risk predictive models have been successfully developed in Australia, the USA, and Europe, but are still in their infancy in Africa. This review aims to investigate whether AFs’ occurrence in African maize can be effectively mitigated in the face of increasing climate change and food insecurity using climate risk predictive studies. A systematic search is conducted using Google Scholar. The complexities associated with the development of these prediction models vary from statistical tools such as simple regression equations to complex systems such as artificial intelligence models. Africa’s inability to simulate a climate mycotoxin risk model in the past has been attributed to insufficient climate or AF contamination data. Recently, however, advancement in technologies including artificial intelligence modelling has bridged this gap, as climate risk scenarios can now be correctly predicted from missing and unbalanced data.

Study on In Vitro Metabolism and In Vivo Pharmacokinetics of Beauvericin

Beauvericin (BEA) is a well-known mycotoxin produced by many fungi, including Beaveria bassiana. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the in vitro distribution and metabolism characteristics as well as the in vivo pharmacokinetic (PK) profile of BEA. The in vitro metabolism studies of BEA were performed using rat, dog, mouse, monkey and human liver microsomes, cryopreserved hepatocytes and plasma under conditions of linear kinetics to estimate the respective elimination rates. Additionally, LC-UV-MSn (n = 1~2) was used to identify metabolites in human, rat, mouse, dog and monkey liver microsomes. Furthermore, cytochrome P450 (CYP) reaction phenotyping was carried out. Finally, the absolute bioavailability of BEA was evaluated by intravenous and oral administration in rats. BEA was metabolically stable in the liver microsomes and hepatocytes of humans and rats; however, it was a strong inhibitor of midazolam 1′-hydroxylase (CYP3A4) and mephenytoin 4′-hydroxylase (CYP2C19) activities in human liver microsomes. The protein binding fraction values of BEA were >90% and the half-life (T1/2) values of BEA were approximately 5 h in the plasma of the five species. The absolute bioavailability was calculated to be 29.5%. Altogether, these data indicate that BEA has great potential for further development as a drug candidate. Metabolic studies of different species can provide important reference values for further safety evaluation.

Six Main Contributing Factors to High Levels of Mycotoxin Contamination in African Foods

Africa is one of the regions with high mycotoxin contamination of foods and continues to record high incidences of liver cancers globally. The agricultural sector of most African countries depends largely on climate variables for crop production. Production of mycotoxins is climate-sensitive. Most stakeholders in the food production chain in Africa are not aware of the health and economic effects of consuming contaminated foods. The aim of this review is to evaluate the main factors and their degree of contribution to the high levels of mycotoxins in African foods. Thus, knowledge of the contributions of different factors responsible for high levels of these toxins will be a good starting point for the effective mitigation of mycotoxins in Africa. Google Scholar was used to conduct a systemic search. Six factors were found to be linked to high levels of mycotoxins in African foods, in varying degrees. Climate change remains the main driving factor in the production of mycotoxins. The other factors are partly man-made and can be manipulated to become a more profitable or less climate-sensitive response. Awareness of the existence of these mycotoxins and their economic as well as health consequences remains paramount. The degree of management of these factors regarding mycotoxins varies from one region of the world to another.