1
|
Wilhelm E, Poirier M, Da Rocha M, Bédard M, McDonald PP, Lavigne P, Hunter CL, Bell B. Mitotic deacetylase complex (MiDAC) recognizes the HIV-1 core promoter to control activated viral gene expression. PLoS Pathog 2024; 20:e1011821. [PMID: 38781120 PMCID: PMC11115230 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1011821] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2023] [Accepted: 04/05/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024] Open
Abstract
The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) integrates into the host genome forming latent cellular reservoirs that are an obstacle for cure or remission strategies. Viral transcription is the first step in the control of latency and depends upon the hijacking of the host cell RNA polymerase II (Pol II) machinery by the 5' HIV LTR. Consequently, "block and lock" or "shock and kill" strategies for an HIV cure depend upon a full understanding of HIV transcriptional control. The HIV trans-activating protein, Tat, controls HIV latency as part of a positive feed-forward loop that strongly activates HIV transcription. The recognition of the TATA box and adjacent sequences of HIV essential for Tat trans-activation (TASHET) of the core promoter by host cell pre-initiation complexes of HIV (PICH) has been shown to be necessary for Tat trans-activation, yet the protein composition of PICH has remained obscure. Here, DNA-affinity chromatography was employed to identify the mitotic deacetylase complex (MiDAC) as selectively recognizing TASHET. Using biophysical techniques, we show that the MiDAC subunit DNTTIP1 binds directly to TASHET, in part via its CTGC DNA motifs. Using co-immunoprecipitation assays, we show that DNTTIP1 interacts with MiDAC subunits MIDEAS and HDAC1/2. The Tat-interacting protein, NAT10, is also present in HIV-bound MiDAC. Gene silencing revealed a functional role for DNTTIP1, MIDEAS, and NAT10 in HIV expression in cellulo. Furthermore, point mutations in TASHET that prevent DNTTIP1 binding block the reactivation of HIV by latency reversing agents (LRA) that act via the P-TEFb/7SK axis. Our data reveal a key role for MiDAC subunits DNTTIP1, MIDEAS, as well as NAT10, in Tat-activated HIV transcription and latency. DNTTIP1, MIDEAS and NAT10 emerge as cell cycle-regulated host cell transcription factors that can control activated HIV gene expression, and as new drug targets for HIV cure strategies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Morgane Da Rocha
- Département de microbiologie et d’infectiologie, Faculté de médecine et sciences de la santé, Université de Sherbrooke, and Centre de recherche du CHUS, Sherbrooke, Québec, Canada
| | - Mikaël Bédard
- Département de Biochimie et de Génomique Fonctionnelle, Faculté de médecine et sciences de la santé, Université de Sherbrooke, and Centre de recherche du CHUS, Sherbrooke, Québec, Canada
| | - Patrick P. McDonald
- Pulmonary Division, Medicine Faculty, Université de Sherbrooke; and Centre de recherche du CHUS, Sherbrooke, Québec, Canada
| | - Pierre Lavigne
- Département de Biochimie et de Génomique Fonctionnelle, Faculté de médecine et sciences de la santé, Université de Sherbrooke, and Centre de recherche du CHUS, Sherbrooke, Québec, Canada
| | | | - Brendan Bell
- Département de microbiologie et d’infectiologie, Faculté de médecine et sciences de la santé, Université de Sherbrooke, and Centre de recherche du CHUS, Sherbrooke, Québec, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Izquierdo-Pujol J, Puertas MC, Martinez-Picado J, Morón-López S. Targeting Viral Transcription for HIV Cure Strategies. Microorganisms 2024; 12:752. [PMID: 38674696 PMCID: PMC11052381 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms12040752] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2024] [Revised: 04/05/2024] [Accepted: 04/05/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Combination antiretroviral therapy (ART) suppresses viral replication to undetectable levels, reduces mortality and morbidity, and improves the quality of life of people living with HIV (PWH). However, ART cannot cure HIV infection because it is unable to eliminate latently infected cells. HIV latency may be regulated by different HIV transcription mechanisms, such as blocks to initiation, elongation, and post-transcriptional processes. Several latency-reversing (LRA) and -promoting agents (LPA) have been investigated in clinical trials aiming to eliminate or reduce the HIV reservoir. However, none of these trials has shown a conclusive impact on the HIV reservoir. Here, we review the cellular and viral factors that regulate HIV-1 transcription, the potential pharmacological targets and genetic and epigenetic editing techniques that have been or might be evaluated to disrupt HIV-1 latency, the role of miRNA in post-transcriptional regulation of HIV-1, and the differences between the mechanisms regulating HIV-1 and HIV-2 expression.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jon Izquierdo-Pujol
- IrsiCaixa, 08916 Badalona, Spain; (J.I.-P.); (M.C.P.); (J.M.-P.)
- Germans Trias i Pujol Research Institute (IGTP), 08916 Badalona, Spain
| | - Maria C. Puertas
- IrsiCaixa, 08916 Badalona, Spain; (J.I.-P.); (M.C.P.); (J.M.-P.)
- Germans Trias i Pujol Research Institute (IGTP), 08916 Badalona, Spain
- CIBERINFEC, 28029 Madrid, Spain
| | - Javier Martinez-Picado
- IrsiCaixa, 08916 Badalona, Spain; (J.I.-P.); (M.C.P.); (J.M.-P.)
- Germans Trias i Pujol Research Institute (IGTP), 08916 Badalona, Spain
- CIBERINFEC, 28029 Madrid, Spain
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunity, School of Medicine, University of Vic-Central University of Catalonia (UVic-UCC), 08500 Vic, Spain
- Catalan Institution for Research and Advanced Studies (ICREA), 08010 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Sara Morón-López
- IrsiCaixa, 08916 Badalona, Spain; (J.I.-P.); (M.C.P.); (J.M.-P.)
- Germans Trias i Pujol Research Institute (IGTP), 08916 Badalona, Spain
- CIBERINFEC, 28029 Madrid, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Alpuche-Lazcano SP, Scarborough RJ, Gatignol A. MicroRNAs and long non-coding RNAs during transcriptional regulation and latency of HIV and HTLV. Retrovirology 2024; 21:5. [PMID: 38424561 PMCID: PMC10905857 DOI: 10.1186/s12977-024-00637-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2023] [Accepted: 02/21/2024] [Indexed: 03/02/2024] Open
Abstract
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and human T cell leukemia virus (HTLV) have replicative and latent stages of infection. The status of the viruses is dependent on the cells that harbour them and on different events that change the transcriptional and post-transcriptional events. Non-coding (nc)RNAs are key factors in the regulation of retrovirus replication cycles. Notably, micro (mi)RNAs and long non-coding (lnc)RNAs are important regulators that can induce switches between active transcription-replication and latency of retroviruses and have important impacts on their pathogenesis. Here, we review the functions of miRNAs and lncRNAs in the context of HIV and HTLV. We describe how specific miRNAs and lncRNAs are involved in the regulation of the viruses' transcription, post-transcriptional regulation and latency. We further discuss treatment strategies using ncRNAs for HIV and HTLV long remission, reactivation or possible cure.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sergio P Alpuche-Lazcano
- Virus-Cell Interactions Laboratory, Lady Davis Institute for Medical Research, 3999, Côte Ste Catherine St., Montréal, QC, H3T 1E2, Canada
- Department of Medicine, Division of Experimental Medicine, McGill University, Montréal, QC, H4A 3J1, Canada
- National Research Council Canada, Montréal, QC, H4P 2R2, Canada
| | - Robert J Scarborough
- Virus-Cell Interactions Laboratory, Lady Davis Institute for Medical Research, 3999, Côte Ste Catherine St., Montréal, QC, H3T 1E2, Canada
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, McGill University, Montréal, QC, H3A 2B4, Canada
| | - Anne Gatignol
- Virus-Cell Interactions Laboratory, Lady Davis Institute for Medical Research, 3999, Côte Ste Catherine St., Montréal, QC, H3T 1E2, Canada.
- Department of Medicine, Division of Experimental Medicine, McGill University, Montréal, QC, H4A 3J1, Canada.
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, McGill University, Montréal, QC, H4A 3J1, Canada.
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, McGill University, Montréal, QC, H3A 2B4, Canada.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Abdalla AL, Guajardo-Contreras G, Mouland AJ. A Canadian Survey of Research on HIV-1 Latency-Where Are We Now and Where Are We Heading? Viruses 2024; 16:229. [PMID: 38400005 PMCID: PMC10891605 DOI: 10.3390/v16020229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2024] [Revised: 01/26/2024] [Accepted: 01/30/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Worldwide, almost 40 million people are currently living with HIV-1. The implementation of cART inhibits HIV-1 replication and reduces viremia but fails to eliminate HIV-1 from latently infected cells. These cells are considered viral reservoirs from which HIV-1 rebounds if cART is interrupted. Several efforts have been made to identify these cells and their niches. There has been little success in diminishing the pool of latently infected cells, underscoring the urgency to continue efforts to fully understand how HIV-1 establishes and maintains a latent state. Reactivating HIV-1 expression in these cells using latency-reversing agents (LRAs) has been successful, but only in vitro. This review aims to provide a broad view of HIV-1 latency, highlighting Canadian contributions toward these aims. We will summarize the research efforts conducted in Canadian labs to understand the establishment of latently infected cells and how this informs curative strategies, by reviewing how HIV latency is established, which cells are latently infected, what methodologies have been developed to characterize them, how new compounds are discovered and evaluated as potential LRAs, and what clinical trials aim to reverse latency in people living with HIV (PLWH).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ana Luiza Abdalla
- HIV-1 RNA Trafficking Laboratory, Lady Davis Institute at the Jewish General Hospital, Montreal, QC H3T 1E2, Canada; (A.L.A.); (G.G.-C.)
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 2B4, Canada
| | - Gabriel Guajardo-Contreras
- HIV-1 RNA Trafficking Laboratory, Lady Davis Institute at the Jewish General Hospital, Montreal, QC H3T 1E2, Canada; (A.L.A.); (G.G.-C.)
- Department of Medicine, McGill University, Montreal, QC H4A 3J1, Canada
| | - Andrew J. Mouland
- HIV-1 RNA Trafficking Laboratory, Lady Davis Institute at the Jewish General Hospital, Montreal, QC H3T 1E2, Canada; (A.L.A.); (G.G.-C.)
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 2B4, Canada
- Department of Medicine, McGill University, Montreal, QC H4A 3J1, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Masenga SK, Mweene BC, Luwaya E, Muchaili L, Chona M, Kirabo A. HIV-Host Cell Interactions. Cells 2023; 12:1351. [PMID: 37408185 DOI: 10.3390/cells12101351] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2023] [Revised: 05/04/2023] [Accepted: 05/05/2023] [Indexed: 07/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The development of antiretroviral drugs (ARVs) was a great milestone in the management of HIV infection. ARVs suppress viral activity in the host cell, thus minimizing injury to the cells and prolonging life. However, an effective treatment has remained elusive for four decades due to the successful immune evasion mechanisms of the virus. A thorough understanding of the molecular interaction of HIV with the host cell is essential in the development of both preventive and curative therapies for HIV infection. This review highlights several inherent mechanisms of HIV that promote its survival and propagation, such as the targeting of CD4+ lymphocytes, the downregulation of MHC class I and II, antigenic variation and an envelope complex that minimizes antibody access, and how they collaboratively render the immune system unable to mount an effective response.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sepiso K Masenga
- HAND Research Group, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Mulungushi University, Livingstone Campus, Livingstone 10101, Zambia
- Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Department of Medicine, Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Room 536 Robinson Research Building, Nashville, TN 37232-6602, USA
| | - Bislom C Mweene
- HAND Research Group, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Mulungushi University, Livingstone Campus, Livingstone 10101, Zambia
| | - Emmanuel Luwaya
- HAND Research Group, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Mulungushi University, Livingstone Campus, Livingstone 10101, Zambia
| | - Lweendo Muchaili
- HAND Research Group, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Mulungushi University, Livingstone Campus, Livingstone 10101, Zambia
| | - Makondo Chona
- HAND Research Group, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Mulungushi University, Livingstone Campus, Livingstone 10101, Zambia
| | - Annet Kirabo
- Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Department of Medicine, Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Room 536 Robinson Research Building, Nashville, TN 37232-6602, USA
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Picker LJ, Lifson JD, Gale M, Hansen SG, Früh K. Programming cytomegalovirus as an HIV vaccine. Trends Immunol 2023; 44:287-304. [PMID: 36894436 PMCID: PMC10089689 DOI: 10.1016/j.it.2023.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2023] [Revised: 02/10/2023] [Accepted: 02/11/2023] [Indexed: 03/09/2023]
Abstract
The initial development of cytomegalovirus (CMV) as a vaccine vector for HIV/simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) was predicated on its potential to pre-position high-frequency, effector-differentiated, CD8+ T cells in tissues for immediate immune interception of nascent primary infection. This goal was achieved and also led to the unexpected discoveries that non-human primate (NHP) CMVs can be programmed to differentially elicit CD8+ T cell responses that recognize viral peptides via classical MHC-Ia, and/or MHC-II, and/or MHC-E, and that MHC-E-restricted CD8+ T cell responses can uniquely mediate stringent arrest and subsequent clearance of highly pathogenic SIV, an unprecedented type of vaccine-mediated protection. These discoveries delineate CMV vector-elicited MHC-E-restricted CD8+ T cells as a functionally distinct T cell response with the potential for superior efficacy against HIV-1, and possibly other infectious agents or cancers.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Louis J Picker
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute and Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR, USA.
| | - Jeffrey D Lifson
- AIDS and Cancer Virus Program, Frederick National Laboratory, Frederick, MD, USA
| | - Michael Gale
- Center for Innate Immunity and Immune Disease, Department of Immunology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Scott G Hansen
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute and Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR, USA
| | - Klaus Früh
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute and Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR, USA
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Chen J, Zhou T, Zhang Y, Luo S, Chen H, Chen D, Li C, Li W. The reservoir of latent HIV. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2022; 12:945956. [PMID: 35967854 PMCID: PMC9368196 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2022.945956] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2022] [Accepted: 06/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The persistence of latent reservoir of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is currently the major challenge in curing HIV infection. After HIV infects the human body, the latent HIV is unable to be recognized by the body’s immune system. Currently, the widely adopted antiretroviral therapy (ART) is also unble to eliminate it, thus hindering the progress of HIV treatment. This review discusses the existence of latent HIV vault for HIV treatment, its formation and factors affecting its formation, cell, and tissue localization, methods for detection and removing latent reservoir, to provide a comprehensive understanding of latent HIV vault, in order to assist in the future research and play a potential role in achieving HIV treatment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jing Chen
- Beijing Institute of Hepatology, Beijing Youan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Tong Zhou
- Xiangya School of Medicine, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Yuan Zhang
- Beijing Youan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Shumin Luo
- Beijing Institute of Hepatology, Beijing Youan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Huan Chen
- Beijing Youan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Dexi Chen
- Beijing Institute of Hepatology, Beijing Youan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Chuanyun Li
- Beijing Youan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
- *Correspondence: Chuanyun Li, ; Weihua Li,
| | - Weihua Li
- Beijing Institute of Hepatology, Beijing Youan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
- *Correspondence: Chuanyun Li, ; Weihua Li,
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Mohammadi M, Akhoundi M, Malih S, Mohammadi A, Sheykhhasan M. Therapeutic roles of CAR T cells in infectious diseases: Clinical lessons learnt from cancer. Rev Med Virol 2022; 32:e2325. [PMID: 35037732 DOI: 10.1002/rmv.2325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2021] [Revised: 12/14/2021] [Accepted: 01/05/2022] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Cancer immunotherapy has made improvements due to the advances in chimaeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cell development, offering a promising treatment option for patients who have failed to respond to traditional treatments. In light of the successful use of adoptive CAR T cell therapy for cancer, researchers have been inspired to develop CARs for the treatment of other diseases beyond cancers such as viral infectious diseases. Nonetheless, various obstacles limit the efficacy of CAR T cell therapies and prevent their widespread usage. Severe toxicities, poor in vivo persistence, antigen escape, and heterogeneity, as well as off-target effect, are key challenges that must all be addressed to broaden the application of CAR T cells to a wider spectrum of diseases. The key advances in CAR T cell treatment for cancer and viral infections are reviewed in this article. We will also discuss revolutionary CAR T cell products developed to improve and enhance the therapeutic advantages of these treatments.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mahsa Mohammadi
- Department of Stem Cells and Developmental Biology, Cell Science Research Center, Royan Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Technology, ACECR, Tehran, Iran.,Department of Developmental Biology, University of Science and Culture, Tehran, Iran
| | - Maryam Akhoundi
- Department of Stem Cells and Developmental Biology, Cell Science Research Center, Royan Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Technology, ACECR, Tehran, Iran
| | - Sara Malih
- Department of Radiology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, USA.,Department of Medical Biotechnology, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Ali Mohammadi
- School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.,School of Medicine, Lorestan University of Medical Sciences, Khorramabad, Iran
| | - Mohsen Sheykhhasan
- Research Center for Molecular Medicine, Hamadan University of Medical Sciences, Hamadan, Iran.,Department of Mesenchymal Stem Cells, The Academic Center for Education, Culture and Research, Qom, Iran
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Thomas S, Abraham A, Callaghan PJ, Rappuoli R. Challenges for Vaccinologists in the First Half of the Twenty-First Century. Methods Mol Biol 2022; 2410:3-25. [PMID: 34914040 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-1884-4_1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic of 2020-2021 has highlighted the importance of vaccines and vaccination in human health. The pandemic has resulted in social distancing, travel restrictions, decreased trade, high unemployment, commodity price decline, and financial stress that has impacted the global economy. Since December 2020, a massive vaccination campaign is undergoing in every country on the planet to protect against SARS-CoV-2. Vaccination is the cheapest health-care interventions that can save more lives than any other drugs or therapies. Some of the common diseases of the twentieth century including smallpox and polio are seldom reported due to intense vaccination programs that eradicated it. Smallpox is completely eradicated globally; whereas, polio is confined to only a couple of countries. Vaccination has not only improved the health of man but also improved food security by preventing diseases in farm animals and aquacultured fish. Awareness of the principles of immunology and novel vaccines has led to effective vaccination strategies. Climate change could lead to generation of new strains of infectious microorganisms that would require development of novel vaccines. Recent years have seen the increase in incidence of brain-eating amoeba and flesh-eating bacteria (necrotizing fasciitis). There are no vaccines for these diseases. Though vaccination programs have eradicated several diseases and increased the quality of life, there are several diseases that have no effective vaccines. Currently there are no vaccines for cancer, neurodegenerative diseases, autoimmune diseases, as well as infectious diseases like tuberculosis, AIDS, and parasitic diseases including malaria. Spontaneous evolution of pathogenic microorganisms may lead to pandemics that impact the health of not only humanity but also other animals. Hence, the challenge to vaccinologists is the development of novel vaccines and vaccination strategies within limited time period and using minimum resources. In addition, the vaccine developed should be administered globally within a short duration so as to prevent generation of pathogenic variants more lethal than the parent strain.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sunil Thomas
- Lankenau Institute for Medical Research, Wynnewood, USA.
| | - Ann Abraham
- Lankenau Institute for Medical Research, Wynnewood, USA
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
10
|
Alagaratnam J, Winston A. Molecular neuroimaging of inflammation in HIV. Clin Exp Immunol 2021; 210:14-23. [PMID: 35020855 PMCID: PMC9585552 DOI: 10.1093/cei/uxab013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2021] [Revised: 09/13/2021] [Accepted: 11/03/2021] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
People with HIV now have near-normal life expectancies due to the success of effective combination antiretroviral therapy (cART). Following cART initiation, immune recovery occurs, and opportunistic diseases become rare. Despite this, high rates of non-infectious comorbidities persist in treated people with HIV, hypothesized to be related to persistent immuno-activation. One such comorbidity is cognitive impairment, which may partly be driven by ongoing neuro-inflammation in otherwise effectively treated people with HIV. In order to develop therapeutic interventions to address neuro-inflammation in effectively treated people with HIV, a deeper understanding of the pathogenic mechanisms driving persistent neuro-inflammatory responses and the ability to better characterize and measure neuro-inflammation in the central nervous system is required. This review highlights recent advances in molecular neuroimaging techniques which have the potential to assess neuro-inflammatory responses within the central nervous system in HIV disease. Proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy (1H-MRS) has been utilized to assess neuro-inflammatory responses since early in the HIV pandemic and shows promise in recent studies assessing different antiretroviral regimens. 1H-MRS is widely available in both resource-rich and some resource-constrained settings and is relatively inexpensive. Brain positron emission tomography (PET) imaging using Translocator Protein (TSPO) radioligands is a rapidly evolving field; newer TSPO-radioligands have lower signal-to-noise ratio and have the potential to localize neuro-inflammation within the brain in people with HIV. As HIV therapeutics evolve, people with HIV continue to age and develop age-related comorbidities including cognitive disorders. The use of novel neuroimaging modalities in the field is likely to advance in order to rapidly assess novel therapeutic interventions and may play a role in future clinical assessments.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jasmini Alagaratnam
- Correspondence: Jasmini Alagaratnam, Clinical Trials Centre, Winston Churchill Wing, St. Mary’s Hospital, Praed Street, London W2 1NY, UK.
| | - Alan Winston
- Department of Infectious Disease, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, UK,Department of Genitourinary Medicine & HIV, St Mary’s Hospital, Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust, London, UK
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Curty G, Iñiguez LP, Nixon DF, Soares MA, de Mulder Rougvie M. Hallmarks of Retroelement Expression in T-Cells Treated With HDAC Inhibitors. FRONTIERS IN VIROLOGY 2021. [DOI: 10.3389/fviro.2021.756635] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
A wide spectrum of drugs have been assessed as latency reversal agents (LRA) to reactivate HIV-1 from cellular reservoirs and aid in viral eradication strategies. Histone deacetylase inhibitors (HDACi) have been studied in vitro and in vivo as potential candidates for HIV-1 latency reversion. Suberoylanilide hydroxamic acid (SAHA) and romidepsin (RMD) are two HDACi able to reverse HIV latency, however studies of potential off-target effects on retroelement expression have been limited. Retroelements constitute a large portion of the human genome, and some are considered “fossil viruses” as they constitute remnants of ancient exogenous retroviruses infections. Retroelements are reactivated during certain disease conditions like cancer or during HIV-1 infection. In this study, we analyzed differential expression of retroelements using publicly available RNA-seq datasets (GSE102187 and GSE114883) obtained from uninfected CD4+, and HIV-1 latently infected CD4+ T-cells treated with HDACi (SAHA and RMD). We found a total of 712 and 1,380 differentially expressed retroelements in HIV-1 latently infected cells following a 24-h SAHA and RMD treatment, respectively. Furthermore, we found that 531 retroelement sequences (HERVs and L1) were differentially expressed under both HDACi treatments, while 1,030 HERV/L1 were exclusively regulated by each drug. Despite differences in specific HERV loci expression, the overall pattern at the HERV family level was similar for both treatments. We detected differential expression of full-length HERV families including HERV-K, HERV-W and HERV-H. Furthermore, we analyzed the link between differentially expressed retroelements and nearby immune genes. TRAF2 (TNF receptor) and GBP5 (inflammasome activator) were upregulated in HDACi treated samples and their expression was correlated with nearby HERV (MERV101_9q34.3) and L1 (L1FLnI_1p22.2k, L1FLnI_1p22.2j, L1FLnI_1p22.2i). Our findings suggest that HDACi have an off-target effect on the expression of retroelements and on the expression of immune associated genes in treated CD4+ T-cells. Furthermore, our data highlights the importance of exploring the interaction between HIV-1 and retroelement expression in LRA treated samples to understand their role and impact on “shock and kill” strategies and their potential use as reservoir biomarkers.
Collapse
|
12
|
Alagaratnam J, Stöhr W, Toombs J, Heslegrave A, Zetterberg H, Gisslén M, Pett S, Nelson M, Clarke A, Nwokolo N, Johnson MA, Khan M, Hanke T, Kopycinski J, Dorrell L, Fox J, Kinloch S, Underwood J, Pace M, Frater J, Winston A, Fidler S. No evidence of neuronal damage as measured by neurofilament light chain in a HIV cure study utilising a kick-and-kill approach. J Virus Erad 2021; 7:100056. [PMID: 34611495 PMCID: PMC8477217 DOI: 10.1016/j.jve.2021.100056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2020] [Revised: 08/03/2021] [Accepted: 09/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE HIV-remission strategies including kick-and-kill could induce viral transcription and immune-activation in the central nervous system, potentially causing neuronal injury. We investigated the impact of kick-and-kill on plasma neurofilament light (NfL), a marker of neuro-axonal injury, in RIVER trial participants commencing antiretroviral treatment (ART) during primary infection and randomly allocated to ART-alone or kick-and-kill (ART + vaccination + vorinostat (ART + V + V)). DESIGN Sub-study measuring serial plasma NfL concentrations. METHODS Plasma NfL (using Simoa digital immunoassay), plasma HIV-1 RNA (using single-copy assay) and total HIV-1 DNA (using quantitative polymerase chain reaction in peripheral CD4+ T-cells) were measured at randomisation (following ≥22 weeks ART), week 12 (on final intervention day in ART + V + V) and week 18 post-randomisation. HIV-specific T-cells were quantified by intracellular cytokine staining at randomisation and week 12. Differences in plasma NfL longitudinally and by study arm were analysed using mixed models and Student's t-test. Associations with plasma NfL were assessed using linear regression and rank statistics. RESULTS At randomisation, 58 male participants had median age 32 years and CD4+ count 696 cells/μL. No significant difference in plasma NfL was seen longitudinally and by study arm, with median plasma NfL (pg/mL) in ART-only vs ART + V + V: 7.4 vs 6.4, p = 0.16 (randomisation), 8.0 vs 6.9, p = 0.22 (week 12) and 7.1 vs 6.8, p = 0.74 (week 18). Plasma NfL did not significantly correlate with plasma HIV-1 RNA and total HIV-1 DNA concentration in peripheral CD4+ T-cells at any timepoint. While higher HIV-specific T-cell responses were seen at week 12 in ART + V + V, there were no significant correlations with plasma NfL. In multivariate analysis, higher plasma NfL was associated with older age, higher CD8+ count and lower body mass index. CONCLUSIONS Despite evidence of vaccine-induced HIV-specific T-cell responses, we observed no evidence of increased neuro-axonal injury using plasma NfL as a biomarker up to 18 weeks following kick-and-kill, compared with ART-only.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jasmini Alagaratnam
- Department of Infectious Disease, St Mary's Hospital Campus, Imperial College London, London, W2 1NY, United Kingdom
- Genitourinary Medicine and HIV Department, St Mary's Hospital, Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust, London, W2 1NY, United Kingdom
| | - Wolfgang Stöhr
- Medical Research Council Clinical Trials Unit at UCL, 90 High Holborn, Holborn, London, WC1V 6LJ, United Kingdom
| | - Jamie Toombs
- UK Dementia Research Institute at University College London, UCL Cruciform Building, Gower Street, Bloomsbury, London, WC1E 6BT, UK
| | - Amanda Heslegrave
- UK Dementia Research Institute at University College London, UCL Cruciform Building, Gower Street, Bloomsbury, London, WC1E 6BT, UK
| | - Henrik Zetterberg
- UK Dementia Research Institute at University College London, UCL Cruciform Building, Gower Street, Bloomsbury, London, WC1E 6BT, UK
- Department of Neurodegenerative Disease, UCL Institute of Neurology, University College London, Queen Square, London, WC1N 3BG, United Kingdom
- Department of Psychiatry and Neurochemistry, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, University of Gothenburg, Wallingsgatan 6, 431 41, Mölndal, Sweden
- Clinical Neurochemistry Laboratory, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Mölndal, Sweden
| | - Magnus Gisslén
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Institute of Biomedicine, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Blå Stråket 5, 413 45, Göteborg, Sweden
- Region Västra Götaland, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Department of Infectious Diseases, Blå Stråket 5, 413 45, Göteborg, Sweden
| | - Sarah Pett
- Medical Research Council Clinical Trials Unit at UCL, 90 High Holborn, Holborn, London, WC1V 6LJ, United Kingdom
- Institute for Global Health, University College London, Gower St, Bloomsbury, London, WC1E 6BT, UK
- Mortimer Market Centre, Central and North West London NHS Foundation Trust, Capper St, Bloomsbury, London, WC1E 6JB, UK
| | - Mark Nelson
- Department of Genitourinary Medicine and HIV, Chelsea & Westminster NHS Foundation Trust, 369 Fulham Rd, Chelsea, London, SW10 9NH, UK
| | - Amanda Clarke
- Department of Genitourinary Medicine and HIV, Brighton & Sussex University Hospitals NHS Trust, Kemptown, Brighton, BN2 1ES, UK
| | - Nneka Nwokolo
- Department of Genitourinary Medicine and HIV, Chelsea & Westminster NHS Foundation Trust, 369 Fulham Rd, Chelsea, London, SW10 9NH, UK
| | - Margaret A. Johnson
- Department of Infection and Immunity, Royal Free Hospital, Pond Street, London, NW3 2QG, United Kingdom
| | - Maryam Khan
- Department of Infectious Disease, St Mary's Hospital Campus, Imperial College London, London, W2 1NY, United Kingdom
| | - Tomas Hanke
- The Jenner Institute, University of Oxford, Old Road Campus Research Build, Roosevelt Dr, Headington, Oxford, OX3 7DQ, UK
- The Joint Research Center for Human Retrovirus Infection, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto 860-0811, Japan
| | - Jakub Kopycinski
- Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX1 2JD, UK
| | - Lucy Dorrell
- Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX1 2JD, UK
| | - Julie Fox
- Department of Genitourinary Medicine and HIV, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, Great Maze Pond, London, SE1 9RT, UK
| | - Sabine Kinloch
- Department of Infection and Immunity, Royal Free Hospital, Pond Street, London, NW3 2QG, United Kingdom
| | - Jonathan Underwood
- Department of Infectious Disease, St Mary's Hospital Campus, Imperial College London, London, W2 1NY, United Kingdom
- Division of Infection and Immunity, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, School of Medicine, UHW Main Building, Heath Park, Cardiff, CF14 4XN, UK
| | - Matthew Pace
- Peter Medawar Building for Pathogen Research, Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3SY, UK
| | - John Frater
- Peter Medawar Building for Pathogen Research, Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3SY, UK
- Oxford University National Institute of Health Research Biomedical Research Centre, Oxford, OX1 2JD, UK
| | - Alan Winston
- Department of Infectious Disease, St Mary's Hospital Campus, Imperial College London, London, W2 1NY, United Kingdom
- Genitourinary Medicine and HIV Department, St Mary's Hospital, Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust, London, W2 1NY, United Kingdom
| | - Sarah Fidler
- Department of Infectious Disease, St Mary's Hospital Campus, Imperial College London, London, W2 1NY, United Kingdom
- Genitourinary Medicine and HIV Department, St Mary's Hospital, Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust, London, W2 1NY, United Kingdom
| | - the RIVER trial study group
- Department of Infectious Disease, St Mary's Hospital Campus, Imperial College London, London, W2 1NY, United Kingdom
- Genitourinary Medicine and HIV Department, St Mary's Hospital, Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust, London, W2 1NY, United Kingdom
- Medical Research Council Clinical Trials Unit at UCL, 90 High Holborn, Holborn, London, WC1V 6LJ, United Kingdom
- UK Dementia Research Institute at University College London, UCL Cruciform Building, Gower Street, Bloomsbury, London, WC1E 6BT, UK
- Department of Neurodegenerative Disease, UCL Institute of Neurology, University College London, Queen Square, London, WC1N 3BG, United Kingdom
- Department of Psychiatry and Neurochemistry, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, University of Gothenburg, Wallingsgatan 6, 431 41, Mölndal, Sweden
- Clinical Neurochemistry Laboratory, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Mölndal, Sweden
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Institute of Biomedicine, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Blå Stråket 5, 413 45, Göteborg, Sweden
- Region Västra Götaland, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Department of Infectious Diseases, Blå Stråket 5, 413 45, Göteborg, Sweden
- Institute for Global Health, University College London, Gower St, Bloomsbury, London, WC1E 6BT, UK
- Mortimer Market Centre, Central and North West London NHS Foundation Trust, Capper St, Bloomsbury, London, WC1E 6JB, UK
- Department of Genitourinary Medicine and HIV, Chelsea & Westminster NHS Foundation Trust, 369 Fulham Rd, Chelsea, London, SW10 9NH, UK
- Department of Genitourinary Medicine and HIV, Brighton & Sussex University Hospitals NHS Trust, Kemptown, Brighton, BN2 1ES, UK
- Department of Infection and Immunity, Royal Free Hospital, Pond Street, London, NW3 2QG, United Kingdom
- The Jenner Institute, University of Oxford, Old Road Campus Research Build, Roosevelt Dr, Headington, Oxford, OX3 7DQ, UK
- The Joint Research Center for Human Retrovirus Infection, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto 860-0811, Japan
- Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX1 2JD, UK
- Department of Genitourinary Medicine and HIV, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, Great Maze Pond, London, SE1 9RT, UK
- Division of Infection and Immunity, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, School of Medicine, UHW Main Building, Heath Park, Cardiff, CF14 4XN, UK
- Peter Medawar Building for Pathogen Research, Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3SY, UK
- Oxford University National Institute of Health Research Biomedical Research Centre, Oxford, OX1 2JD, UK
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Ma L, Chen S, Wang Z, Guo S, Zhao J, Yi D, Li Q, Liu Z, Guo F, Li X, Jia P, Ding J, Liang C, Cen S. The CREB Regulated Transcription Coactivator 2 Suppresses HIV-1 Transcription by Preventing RNA Pol II from Binding to HIV-1 LTR. Virol Sin 2021; 36:796-809. [PMID: 33723808 DOI: 10.1007/s12250-021-00363-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2020] [Accepted: 12/09/2020] [Indexed: 10/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The CREB-regulated transcriptional co-activators (CRTCs), including CRTC1, CRTC2 and CRTC3, enhance transcription of CREB-targeted genes. In addition to regulating host gene expression in response to cAMP, CRTCs also increase the infection of several viruses. While human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) long terminal repeat (LTR) promoter harbors a cAMP response element and activation of the cAMP pathway promotes HIV-1 transcription, it remains unknown whether CRTCs have any effect on HIV-1 transcription and HIV-1 infection. Here, we reported that CRTC2 expression was induced by HIV-1 infection, but CRTC2 suppressed HIV-1 infection and diminished viral RNA expression. Mechanistic studies revealed that CRTC2 inhibited transcription from HIV-1 LTR and diminished RNA Pol II occupancy at the LTR independent of its association with CREB. Importantly, CRTC2 inhibits the activation of latent HIV-1. Together, these data suggest that in response to HIV-1 infection, cells increase the expression of CRTC2 which inhibits HIV-1 gene expression and may play a role in driving HIV-1 into latency.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ling Ma
- Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical School, Beijing, 100050, China
| | - Shumin Chen
- Department of Blood Transfusion, The Affiliated Hospital of Qingdao University, Qingdao 266000, China
| | - Zhen Wang
- Lady Davis Institute, Jewish General Hospital, McGill University, Montreal, QC, H3T 1E2, Canada
| | - Saisai Guo
- Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical School, Beijing, 100050, China
| | - Jianyuan Zhao
- Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical School, Beijing, 100050, China
| | - Dongrong Yi
- Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical School, Beijing, 100050, China
| | - Quanjie Li
- Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical School, Beijing, 100050, China
| | - Zhenlong Liu
- Lady Davis Institute, Jewish General Hospital, McGill University, Montreal, QC, H3T 1E2, Canada
| | - Fei Guo
- Institute of Pathogen Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical School, Beijing, 100176, China
| | - Xiaoyu Li
- Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical School, Beijing, 100050, China
| | - Pingping Jia
- Beijing Shijitan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, 100038, China
| | - Jiwei Ding
- Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical School, Beijing, 100050, China. .,CAMS Key Laboratory of Antiviral Drug Research, Peking Union Medical College, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, 100050, China.
| | - Chen Liang
- Lady Davis Institute, Jewish General Hospital, McGill University, Montreal, QC, H3T 1E2, Canada
| | - Shan Cen
- Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical School, Beijing, 100050, China. .,CAMS Key Laboratory of Antiviral Drug Research, Peking Union Medical College, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, 100050, China. .,Beijing Friendship Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, 100029, China.
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Abstract
Strategies to stabilize and suppress the latent cell reservoir of HIV have been proposed and need to be carefully examined. We demonstrate the use of time-lapse fluorescence microscopy to quantify HIV gene-expression dynamics and detect several latency-promoting agents (LPAs) that would be overlooked when screening for mean gene expression alone. These LPAs are structurally and functionally related to inhibitors of the thioredoxin/thioredoxin reductase redox pathway, which has been suggested as a promising HIV target. Some LPAs are Food and Drug Administration–approved and commercially available and can expand the currently limited LPA repertoire. This study provides a foundation to research suppression mechanisms of HIV gene expression, alternative latency-promoting therapies, and ultimately remove the need for antiretroviral therapy in patients. Upon treatment removal, spontaneous reactivation of latently infected T cells remains a major barrier toward curing HIV. Therapies that reactivate and clear the latent reservoir are only partially effective, while latency-promoting agents (LPAs) used to suppress reactivation and stabilize latency are understudied and lack diversity in their mechanisms of action. Here, we identify additional LPAs using a screen for gene-expression fluctuations (or “noise”) that drive cell-fate specification and control HIV reactivation from latency. Single-cell protein dynamics of a minimal HIV gene circuit were monitored with time-lapse fluorescence microscopy. We screened 1,806 drugs, out of which 279 modulate noise magnitude or half autocorrelation time. Next, we tested the strongest noise modulators in a Jurkat T cell latency model and discovered three LPAs that would be overlooked by quantifying their mean expression levels alone. The LPAs reduced reactivation of latency in both Jurkat and primary cell models when challenged by synergistic and potent combinations of HIV activators. The two strongest LPAs, NSC 401005 and NSC 400938, are structurally and functionally related to inhibitors of thioredoxin reductase, a protein involved in maintaining redox balance in host cells. Experiments with multiple functional analogs revealed two additional LPAs, PX12 and tiopronin, and suggest a potential LPA family, within which some are commercially available and Food and Drug Administration–approved. The LPAs presented here may provide new strategies to complement antiretroviral treatments. Screening for gene expression noise holds the potential for drug discovery in other diseases.
Collapse
|
15
|
Flavonoid-based inhibition of cyclin-dependent kinase 9 without concomitant inhibition of histone deacetylases durably reinforces HIV latency. Biochem Pharmacol 2021; 186:114462. [PMID: 33577894 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2021.114462] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2020] [Revised: 02/01/2021] [Accepted: 02/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
While combination antiretroviral therapy (cART) durably suppresses HIV replication, virus persists in CD4+ T-cells that harbor latent but spontaneously inducible and replication-competent provirus. One strategy to inactivate these viral reservoirs involves the use of agents that continue to reinforce HIV latency even after their withdrawal. To identify new chemical leads with such properties, we investigated a series of naturally-occurring flavones (chrysin, apigenin, luteolin, and luteolin-7-glucoside (L7G)) and functionally-related cyclin dependent kinase 9 (CDK9) inhibitors (flavopiridol and atuveciclib) which are reported or presumed to suppress HIV replication in vitro. We found that, while all compounds inhibit provirus expression induced by latency-reversing agents in vitro, only aglycone flavonoids (chrysin, apigenin, luteolin, flavopiridol) and atuveciclib, but not the glycosylated flavonoid L7G, inhibit spontaneous latency reversal. Aglycone flavonoids and atuveciclib, but not L7G, also inhibit CDK9 and the HIV Tat protein. Aglycone flavonoids do not reinforce HIV latency following their in vitro withdrawal, which corresponds with their ability to also inhibit class I/II histone deacetylases (HDAC), a well-established mechanism of latency reversal. In contrast, atuveciclib and flavopiridol, which exhibit little or no HDAC inhibition, continue to reinforce latency for 9 to 14+ days, respectively, following their withdrawal in vitro. Finally, we show that flavopiridol also inhibits spontaneous ex vivo viral RNA production in CD4+ T cells from donors with HIV. These results implicate CDK9 inhibition (in the absence of HDAC inhibition) as a potentially favorable property in the search for compounds that durably reinforce HIV latency.
Collapse
|
16
|
Moranguinho I, Valente ST. Block-And-Lock: New Horizons for a Cure for HIV-1. Viruses 2020; 12:v12121443. [PMID: 33334019 PMCID: PMC7765451 DOI: 10.3390/v12121443] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2020] [Revised: 12/01/2020] [Accepted: 12/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
HIV-1/AIDS remains a global public health problem. The world health organization (WHO) reported at the end of 2019 that 38 million people were living with HIV-1 worldwide, of which only 67% were accessing antiretroviral therapy (ART). Despite great success in the clinical management of HIV-1 infection, ART does not eliminate the virus from the host genome. Instead, HIV-1 remains latent as a viral reservoir in any tissue containing resting memory CD4+ T cells. The elimination of these residual proviruses that can reseed full-blown infection upon treatment interruption remains the major barrier towards curing HIV-1. Novel approaches have recently been developed to excise or disrupt the virus from the host cells (e.g., gene editing with the CRISPR-Cas system) to permanently shut off transcription of the virus (block-and-lock and RNA interference strategies), or to reactivate the virus from cell reservoirs so that it can be eliminated by the immune system or cytopathic effects (shock-and-kill strategy). Here, we will review each of these approaches, with the major focus placed on the block-and-lock strategy.
Collapse
|
17
|
Lin X, Sajith AM, Wang S, Kumari N, Choy MS, Ahmad A, Cadet DR, Gu X, Ivanov AI, Peti W, Kulkarni A, Nekhai S. Structural Optimization of 2,3-Dihydro-1H-cyclopenta[ b]quinolines Targeting the Noncatalytic RVxF Site of Protein Phosphatase 1 for HIV-1 Inhibition. ACS Infect Dis 2020; 6:3190-3211. [PMID: 33258581 DOI: 10.1021/acsinfecdis.0c00511] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Combination antiretroviral therapy (cART) suppresses human immunodeficiency virus-1 (HIV-1) replication but is unable to permanently eradicate HIV-1. Importantly, cART does not target HIV-1 transcription, which is reactivated in latently infected reservoirs, leading to HIV-1 pathogenesis including non-infectious lung, cardiovascular, kidney, and neurodegenerative diseases. To address the limitations of cART and to prevent HIV-1-related pathogenesis, we developed small molecules to target the noncatalytic RVxF-accommodating site of protein phosphatase-1 (PP1) to prevent HIV-1 transcription activation. The PP1 RVxF-accommodating site is critical for the recruitment of regulatory and substrate proteins to PP1. Here, we confirm that our previously developed 1E7-03 compound binds to the PP1 RVxF-accommodating site. Iterative chemical alterations to 1E7-03 furnished a new analogue, HU-1a, with enhanced HIV-1 inhibitory activity and improved metabolic stability compared to 1E7-03. In a Split NanoBit competition assay, HU-1a primarily bound to the PP1 RVxF-accommodating site. In conclusion, our study identified HU-1a as a promising HIV-1 transcription inhibitor and showed that the PP1 RVxF-accommodating site is a potential drug target for the development of novel HIV-1 transcription inhibitors.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xionghao Lin
- Center for Sickle Cell Disease, College of Medicine, Howard University, Washington, DC 20059, United States
- Department of Oral Pathology, College of Dentistry, Howard University, Washington, DC 20059, United States
| | - Ayyiliath M Sajith
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Howard University, Washington, DC 20059, United States
| | - Songping Wang
- Center for Sickle Cell Disease, College of Medicine, Howard University, Washington, DC 20059, United States
| | - Namita Kumari
- Center for Sickle Cell Disease, College of Medicine, Howard University, Washington, DC 20059, United States
- Department of Medicine, College of Medicine, Howard University, Washington, DC 20059 United States
| | - Meng S Choy
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721 United States
| | - Asrar Ahmad
- Center for Sickle Cell Disease, College of Medicine, Howard University, Washington, DC 20059, United States
| | - Dana R. Cadet
- Department of Natural Science, Bowie State University, Bowie, Maryland 20715, United States
| | - Xinbin Gu
- Department of Oral Pathology, College of Dentistry, Howard University, Washington, DC 20059, United States
| | - Andrey I. Ivanov
- Center for Sickle Cell Disease, College of Medicine, Howard University, Washington, DC 20059, United States
| | - Wolfgang Peti
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721 United States
| | - Amol Kulkarni
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Howard University, Washington, DC 20059, United States
| | - Sergei Nekhai
- Center for Sickle Cell Disease, College of Medicine, Howard University, Washington, DC 20059, United States
- Department of Medicine, College of Medicine, Howard University, Washington, DC 20059 United States
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Vansant G, Chen HC, Zorita E, Trejbalová K, Miklík D, Filion G, Debyser Z. The chromatin landscape at the HIV-1 provirus integration site determines viral expression. Nucleic Acids Res 2020; 48:7801-7817. [PMID: 32597987 PMCID: PMC7641320 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gkaa536] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2020] [Revised: 06/07/2020] [Accepted: 06/12/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
HIV-1 persists lifelong in memory cells of the immune system as latent provirus that rebounds upon treatment interruption. Therefore, the latent reservoir is the main target for an HIV cure. Here, we studied the direct link between integration site and transcription using LEDGINs and Barcoded HIV-ensembles (B-HIVE). LEDGINs are antivirals that inhibit the interaction between HIV-1 integrase and the chromatin-tethering factor LEDGF/p75. They were used as a tool to retarget integration, while the effect on HIV expression was measured with B-HIVE. B-HIVE tracks insert-specific HIV expression by tagging a unique barcode in the HIV genome. We confirmed that LEDGINs retarget integration out of gene-dense and actively transcribed regions. The distance to H3K36me3, the marker recognized by LEDGF/p75, clearly increased. LEDGIN treatment reduced viral RNA expression and increased the proportion of silent provirus. Finally, silent proviruses obtained after LEDGIN treatment were located further away from epigenetic marks associated with active transcription. Interestingly, proximity to enhancers stimulated transcription irrespective of LEDGIN treatment, while the distance to H3K36me3 only changed after treatment with LEDGINs. The fact that proximity to these markers are associated with RNA expression support the direct link between provirus integration site and viral expression.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gerlinde Vansant
- Laboratory for Molecular Virology and Gene Therapy, Department of Pharmaceutical and Pharmacological Sciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, Flanders, Belgium
| | - Heng-Chang Chen
- Center for Genomic Regulation (CRG), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, Barcelona, Catalunya, Spain
| | - Eduard Zorita
- Center for Genomic Regulation (CRG), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, Barcelona, Catalunya, Spain
| | - Katerina Trejbalová
- Institute of Molecular Genetics, Czech Academy of Sciences, Videnska, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Dalibor Miklík
- Institute of Molecular Genetics, Czech Academy of Sciences, Videnska, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Guillaume Filion
- Center for Genomic Regulation (CRG), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, Barcelona, Catalunya, Spain.,University Pompeu Fabra, Barcelona, Catalunya, Spain
| | - Zeger Debyser
- Laboratory for Molecular Virology and Gene Therapy, Department of Pharmaceutical and Pharmacological Sciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, Flanders, Belgium
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Shukla A, Ramirez NGP, D’Orso I. HIV-1 Proviral Transcription and Latency in the New Era. Viruses 2020; 12:v12050555. [PMID: 32443452 PMCID: PMC7291205 DOI: 10.3390/v12050555] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2020] [Revised: 05/06/2020] [Accepted: 05/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Three decades of extensive work in the HIV field have revealed key viral and host cell factors controlling proviral transcription. Various models of transcriptional regulation have emerged based on the collective information from in vitro assays and work in both immortalized and primary cell-based models. Here, we provide a recount of the past and current literature, highlight key regulatory aspects, and further describe potential limitations of previous studies. We particularly delve into critical steps of HIV gene expression including the role of the integration site, nucleosome positioning and epigenomics, and the transition from initiation to pausing and pause release. We also discuss open questions in the field concerning the generality of previous regulatory models to the control of HIV transcription in patients under suppressive therapy, including the role of the heterogeneous integration landscape, clonal expansion, and bottlenecks to eradicate viral persistence. Finally, we propose that building upon previous discoveries and improved or yet-to-be discovered technologies will unravel molecular mechanisms of latency establishment and reactivation in a “new era”.
Collapse
|
20
|
Chen K, Phan T, Lin A, Sardo L, Mele AR, Nonnemacher MR, Klase Z. Morphine exposure exacerbates HIV-1 Tat driven changes to neuroinflammatory factors in cultured astrocytes. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0230563. [PMID: 32210470 PMCID: PMC7094849 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0230563] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2019] [Accepted: 03/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite antiretroviral therapy human immunodeficiency virus type-1 (HIV-1) infection results in neuroinflammation of the central nervous system that can cause HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders (HAND). The molecular mechanisms involved in the development of HAND are unclear, however, they are likely due to both direct and indirect consequences of HIV-1 infection and inflammation of the central nervous system. Additionally, opioid abuse in infected individuals has the potential to exacerbate HIV-comorbidities, such as HAND. Although restricted for productive HIV replication, astrocytes (comprising 40-70% of all brain cells) likely play a significant role in neuropathogenesis in infected individuals due to the production and response of viral proteins. The HIV-1 protein Tat is critical for viral transcription, causes neuroinflammation, and can be secreted from infected cells to affect uninfected bystander cells. The Wnt/β-catenin signaling cascade plays an integral role in restricting HIV-1 infection in part by negatively regulating HIV-1 Tat function. Conversely, Tat can overcome this negative regulation and inhibit β-catenin signaling by sequestering the critical transcription factor TCF-4 from binding to β-catenin. Here, we aimed to explore how opiate exposure affects Tat-mediated suppression of β-catenin in astrocytes and the downstream modulation of neuroinflammatory genes. We observed that morphine can potentiate Tat suppression of β-catenin activity in human astrocytes. In contrast, Tat mutants deficient in secretion, and lacking neurotoxic effects, do not affect β-catenin activity in the presence or absence of morphine. Finally, morphine treatment of astrocytes was sufficient to reduce the expression of genes involved in neuroinflammation. Examining the molecular mechanisms of how HIV-1 infection and opiate exposure exacerbate neuroinflammation may help us inform or predict disease progression prior to HAND development.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kenneth Chen
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of the Sciences, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Thienlong Phan
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of the Sciences, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Angel Lin
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of the Sciences, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Luca Sardo
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of the Sciences, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
- Current institution – Department of Infectious Diseases and Vaccines, MRL, Merck & Co., Inc., West Point, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Anthony R. Mele
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
- Center for Molecular Virology and Translational Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Michael R. Nonnemacher
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
- Center for Molecular Virology and Translational Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Zachary Klase
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of the Sciences, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Grenier M, Ding S, Vézina D, Chapleau JP, Tolbert WD, Sherburn R, Schön A, Somisetti S, Abrams CF, Pazgier M, Finzi A, Smith AB. Optimization of Small Molecules That Sensitize HIV-1 Infected Cells to Antibody-Dependent Cellular Cytotoxicity. ACS Med Chem Lett 2020; 11:371-378. [PMID: 32184972 PMCID: PMC7074219 DOI: 10.1021/acsmedchemlett.9b00445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2019] [Accepted: 10/30/2019] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
With approximately 37 million people living with HIV worldwide and an estimated 2 million new infections reported each year, the need to derive novel strategies aimed at eradicating HIV-1 infection remains a critical worldwide challenge. One potential strategy would involve eliminating infected cells via antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC). HIV-1 has evolved sophisticated mechanisms to conceal epitopes located in its envelope glycoprotein (Env) that are recognized by ADCC-mediating antibodies present in sera from HIV-1 infected individuals. Our aim is to circumvent this evasion via the development of small molecules that expose relevant anti-Env epitopes and sensitize HIV-1 infected cells to ADCC. Rapid elaboration of an initial screening hit using parallel synthesis and structure-based optimization has led to the development of potent small molecules that elicit this humoral response. Efforts to increase the ADCC activity of this class of small molecules with the aim of increasing their therapeutic potential was based on our recent cocrystal structures with gp120 core.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Melissa
C. Grenier
- Department of Chemistry, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, United States
| | - Shilei Ding
- Centre de Recherche du CHUM, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
- Département de Microbiologie, Infectiologie et
Immunologie, Université de Montréal, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Dani Vézina
- Centre de Recherche du CHUM, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
- Département de Microbiologie, Infectiologie et
Immunologie, Université de Montréal, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Jean-Philippe Chapleau
- Centre de Recherche du CHUM, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
- Département de Microbiologie, Infectiologie et
Immunologie, Université de Montréal, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - William D. Tolbert
- Infections Diseases Division, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, Maryland 20814, United States
| | - Rebekah Sherburn
- Infections Diseases Division, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, Maryland 20814, United States
| | - Arne Schön
- Department of Biology, The Johns Hopkins
University, Baltimore, Maryland 21218, United States
| | - Sambasivarao Somisetti
- Department of Chemistry, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, United States
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Drexel University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, United States
| | - Cameron F. Abrams
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Drexel University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, United States
| | - Marzena Pazgier
- Infections Diseases Division, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, Maryland 20814, United States
| | - Andrés Finzi
- Centre de Recherche du CHUM, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
- Département de Microbiologie, Infectiologie et
Immunologie, Université de Montréal, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Amos B. Smith
- Department of Chemistry, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, United States
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Qi J, Ding C, Jiang X, Gao Y. Advances in Developing CAR T-Cell Therapy for HIV Cure. Front Immunol 2020; 11:361. [PMID: 32210965 PMCID: PMC7076163 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.00361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2019] [Accepted: 02/14/2020] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS), which is caused by HIV infection, is an epidemic disease that has killed millions of people in the last several decades. Although combination antiretroviral therapy (cART) has enabled tremendous progress in suppressing HIV replication, it fails to eliminate HIV latently infected cells, and infected individuals remain HIV positive for life. Lifelong antiretroviral therapy is required to maintain control of virus replication, which may result in significant problems, including long-term toxicity, high cost, and stigma. Therefore, novel therapeutic strategies are urgently needed to eliminate the viral reservoir in the host for HIV cure. In this review, we compare several potential strategies regarding HIV cure and focus on how we might utilize chimeric antigen receptor-modified T cells (CAR T) as a therapy to cure HIV infection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jinxin Qi
- Department of Dermatology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada
| | - Chengchao Ding
- The First Affiliated Hospital, Department of Life Science and Medicine, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China
| | - Xian Jiang
- Department of Dermatology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Yong Gao
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada.,The First Affiliated Hospital, Department of Life Science and Medicine, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Vansant G, Bruggemans A, Janssens J, Debyser Z. Block-And-Lock Strategies to Cure HIV Infection. Viruses 2020; 12:E84. [PMID: 31936859 PMCID: PMC7019976 DOI: 10.3390/v12010084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2019] [Revised: 01/07/2020] [Accepted: 01/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Today HIV infection cannot be cured due to the presence of a reservoir of latently infected cells inducing a viral rebound upon treatment interruption. Hence, the latent reservoir is considered as the major barrier for an HIV cure. So far, efforts to completely eradicate the reservoir via a shock-and-kill approach have proven difficult and unsuccessful. Therefore, more research has been done recently on an alternative block-and-lock functional cure strategy. In contrast to the shock-and-kill strategy that aims to eradicate the entire reservoir, block-and-lock aims to permanently silence all proviruses, even after treatment interruption. HIV silencing can be achieved by targeting different factors of the transcription machinery. In this review, we first describe the underlying mechanisms of HIV transcription and silencing. Next, we give an overview of the different block-and-lock strategies under investigation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gerlinde Vansant
- Laboratory for Molecular Virology and Gene Therapy, Department of Pharmaceutical and Pharmacological Sciences, Katholieke Universiteit, Leuven, 3000 Flanders, Belgium
| | - Anne Bruggemans
- Laboratory for Molecular Virology and Gene Therapy, Department of Pharmaceutical and Pharmacological Sciences, Katholieke Universiteit, Leuven, 3000 Flanders, Belgium
| | - Julie Janssens
- Laboratory for Molecular Virology and Gene Therapy, Department of Pharmaceutical and Pharmacological Sciences, Katholieke Universiteit, Leuven, 3000 Flanders, Belgium
| | - Zeger Debyser
- Laboratory for Molecular Virology and Gene Therapy, Department of Pharmaceutical and Pharmacological Sciences, Katholieke Universiteit, Leuven, 3000 Flanders, Belgium
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Balasubramaniam M, Pandhare J, Dash C. Immune Control of HIV. JOURNAL OF LIFE SCIENCES (WESTLAKE VILLAGE, CALIF.) 2019; 1:4-37. [PMID: 31468033 PMCID: PMC6714987] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection of the immune cells expressing the cluster of differentiation 4 cell surface glycoprotein (CD4+ cells) causes progressive decline of the immune system and leads to the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). The ongoing global HIV/AIDS pandemic has already claimed over 35 million lives. Even after 37 years into the epidemic, neither a cure is available for the 37 million people living with HIV (PLHIV) nor is a vaccine discovered to avert the millions of new HIV infections that continue to occur each year. If left untreated, HIV infection typically progresses to AIDS and, ultimately, causes death in a majority of PLHIV. The recommended combination antiretroviral therapy (cART) suppresses virus replication and viremia, prevents or delays progression to AIDS, reduces transmission rates, and lowers HIV-associated mortality and morbidity. However, because cART does not eliminate HIV, and an enduring pool of infected resting memory CD4+ T cells (latent HIV reservoir) is established early on, any interruption to cART leads to a relapse of viremia and disease progression. Hence, strict adherence to a life-long cART regimen is mandatory for managing HIV infection in PLHIV. The HIV-1-specific cytotoxic T cells expressing the CD8 glycoprotein (CD8+ CTL) limit the virus replication in vivo by recognizing the viral antigens presented by human leukocyte antigen (HLA) class I molecules on the infected cell surface and killing those cells. Nevertheless, CTLs fail to durably control HIV-1 replication and disease progression in the absence of cART. Intriguingly, <1% of cART-naive HIV-infected individuals called elite controllers/HIV controllers (HCs) exhibit the core features that define a HIV-1 "functional cure" outcome in the absence of cART: durable viral suppression to below the limit of detection, long-term non-progression to AIDS, and absence of viral transmission. Robust HIV-1-specific CTL responses and prevalence of protective HLA alleles associated with enduring HIV-1 control have been linked to the HC phenotype. An understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying the CTL-mediated suppression of HIV-1 replication and disease progression in HCs carrying specific protective HLA alleles may yield promising insights towards advancing the research on HIV cure and prophylactic HIV vaccine.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Muthukumar Balasubramaniam
- Center for AIDS Health Disparities Research, Meharry Medical College, Nashville, TN – 37208. USA
- Department of Biochemistry and Cancer Biology, Meharry Medical College, Nashville, TN – 37208. USA
| | - Jui Pandhare
- Center for AIDS Health Disparities Research, Meharry Medical College, Nashville, TN – 37208. USA
- School of Graduate Studies and Research, Meharry Medical College, Nashville, TN – 37208. USA
| | - Chandravanu Dash
- Center for AIDS Health Disparities Research, Meharry Medical College, Nashville, TN – 37208. USA
- Department of Biochemistry and Cancer Biology, Meharry Medical College, Nashville, TN – 37208. USA
- School of Graduate Studies and Research, Meharry Medical College, Nashville, TN – 37208. USA
| |
Collapse
|