Distant metastatic lesions in patients with differentiated thyroid carcinoma. Clinical implications of radioiodine and FDG uptake

Nuclear Medicine Imaging in Differentiated Thyroid Cancer: Summary of the Korean Thyroid Association Guidelines 2024 from Nuclear Medicine Perspective, Part-I

Thyroid cancer, one of the most common endocrine tumors, generally has a favorable prognosis but remains a significant medical and societal concern due to its high incidence. Early diagnosis and treatment of differentiated thyroid cancer (DTC) significantly affect long-term outcomes, requiring the selection and application of appropriate initial treatments to improve prognosis and quality of life. Recent advances in technology and health information systems have enhanced our understanding of the molecular genetics of thyroid cancer, facilitating the identification of aggressive subgroups and enabling the accumulation of research on risk factors through big data. The Korean Thyroid Association (KTA) has revised the "KTA Guidelines on the Management of Differentiated Thyroid Cancers 2024" to incorporate these advances, which were developed by a multidisciplinary team and underwent extensive review and approval processes by various academic societies. This article summarizes the 2024 KTA guidelines for nuclear medicine imaging in patients with DTC, written by the Nuclear Medicine members of the KTA Guideline Committee, and covers 18F-FDG PET/CT and radioiodine imaging with SPECT/CT in the management of DTC.

The impact of qualitative [18F]FDG PET/CT in predicting clinical outcomes of post-surgical differentiated thyroid cancer patients with elevated thyroglobulin and negative radioiodine whole-body scan

BACKGROUND

[18F]FDG PET/CT has been widely used as a diagnostic tool in detection and localization of recurrent non-avid radioiodine lesions in post-operative differentiated thyroid cancer (DTC) patients with elevated serum thyroglobulin but negative radioiodine whole-body scan (TENIS) syndrome. The aim of our study was to evaluate the role of [18F]FDG PET/CT in prediction on outcomes of these DTC patients.

METHODS

Post-operative DTC patients with TENIS syndrome were collected in the department of nuclear medicine, Hospital 108 from 2019 to 2023. Patients underwent [18F]FDG PET/CT with standard protocol following EANM guideline for tumor imaging version 2.0. The qualitative [18F]FDG PET/CT imaging characteristics were classified into three categories: (i) negative [18F]FDG PET/CT, (ii) minimal [18F]FDG PET/CT volume of lesions, (iii) extensive [18F]FDG PET/CT volume of lesions. Progression-free survival (PFS) and overall survival (OS) were the end point of the study. The prognosis of qualitative [18F]FDG PET/CT in predicting PFS and OS was illustrated by Kaplan-Meier survival analysis. The independent factors predicting PFS and OS were determined by univariate and multivariate analysis using logistic regression.

RESULTS

There were 164 consecutive patients, 51.2% female and 48.8% female. The most common histopathological type was papillary accounting for 91.5%. The median time of follow-up was 33.3 months, (range 6.57 - 82.5). There was 70 (36.6%) progressions and 12 (7.35%) deaths. Negative [18F]FDG PET/CT uptake patients had median PFS with median 57.1 months which was higher than that of minimal category (46.2 months), and extensive category (37.6 months) (p < 0,001). 1-year OS and 5-year OS in extensive PET/CT category was 97.8% and 86.2% respectively which were significantly lower than that of negative and minimal categories (p = 0.053). In multivariate analysis, age at the time of diagnosis, pulmonary, bone metastases and extensive [18F]FDG PET/CT volume of lesions were the independent factor predicting PFS. Bone metastasis was only the factor could predict OS in multivariate analysis.

CONCLUSIONS

The minimal and negative [18F]FDG PET/CT categories had better prognosis than extensive category in PFS and OS. Extensive [18F]FDG PET/CT category was an independent factor for predicting PFS. Bone metastasis was only the independent factor that could predict both PFS and OS.

Lactate Dehydrogenase A is Associated with Elevated FDG Metabolism, Radioiodine Non-avidity, and Poor Prognosis in Differentiated Thyroid Cancer

RATIONALE AND OBJECTIVES

The role of lactate dehydrogenase A (LDHA) expression in differentiated thyroid cancer (DTC), especially in radioiodine-refractory DTC, remains unclear. The aim of this study was to analyse the relationships and the prognostic value of LDHA, glycolysis, and radioactive iodine (RAI) avidity in DTC.

METHODS

DTC patients who underwent 18F-FDG PET/CT and subsequent total thyroidectomy or metastasectomy were enroled. The expression levels of LDHA, glucose transporters (Glut) and Ki67 proteins in tumour tissue were measured using immunohistochemistry. The maximum standardised uptake value (SUVmax), metabolic tumour volume (MTV) and total lesion glycolysis (TLG) of 18F-FDG PET/CT were measured. A radioiodine whole body scan was used to determine lesion radioiodine avidity.

RESULTS

69 patients with DTC were enroled in this study, including 37 women (53.6%) and 32 men (46.4%), with a median age of 52 years (11 to 77 years). Regarding the pathological category, papillary thyroid cancer was documented in 50 patients (72.5%), while follicular and poorly differentiated thyroid cancer were found in 12 patients (17.4%) and seven patients (10.1%), respectively. Distant metastases were observed in 27 (39.1%) patients; 34 (49.3%) were classified as stage I, 16 (23.2%) as stage II, and 3 (4.3%) and 16 (23.2%) patients in stages III and IV, respectively. LDHA expression levels were correlated with Glut3 expression levels (r = 0.395, P = 0.003) and SUVmax (r = 0.408, P = 0.002). The median LDHA expression and lesion SUVmax of the RAI avidity group were lower than those of the non-RAI avidity group (200 vs. 285, P = 0.036; 3.06 vs. 8.38, P = 0.038, respectively). Elevated SUVmax (P = 0.004), MTV (P = 0.014), TLG (P = 0.001) and LDHA expression (P = 0.048) led to shorter time to progression (TTP); Cox regression analysis revealed that TLG (HR: 4.773, P = 0.047) was an independent prognostic factor of TTP.

CONCLUSION

Elevated LDHA is correlated with increased glucose metabolism, decreased radioiodine avidity, and accelerated disease progression. Moreover, 18F-FDG PET/CT acting as "in vivo pathology" is an excellent predictor of DTC prognosis.

Efficacy of Empirical 131 I Radioiodine Therapy in Well-Differentiated Thyroid Carcinoma Patients With Thyroglobulin-Elevated Negative Iodine Scintigraphy Syndrome : A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to perform a systematic review and meta-analysis on the efficacy of empirical high-dose radioiodine therapy in treating differentiated thyroid cancer patients with thyroglobulin (Tg)-elevated negative iodine scintigraphy (TENIS) syndrome.

METHODS

We searched PubMed, EMBASE, and the Cochrane Library to identify relevant studies published until April 2022. This systematic review was performed according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses checklist and registered in an international prospective register of systematic reviews (PROSPERO). Meta-analyses of proportions and odds ratios were performed to assess the beneficial effect of empirical high-dose radioiodine therapy in patients with TENIS syndrome. Subgroup analysis was also performed according to the presence of micrometastasis or macrometastasis.

RESULTS

We identified 14 studies including 690 patients who received empirical high-dose radioiodine therapy for TENIS syndrome. Those who had micrometastasis exhibited additional lesions not previously observed on diagnostic whole-body scan (prop = 0.64, 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.51-0.77) and had reduced serum Tg levels (prop = 0.69; 95% CI, 0.52-0.84) after empirical radioiodine treatment. No such findings were observed among patients with macrometastasis. Moreover, we found that the empirical radioiodine treatment group had lower serum Tg levels than did controls (odds ratio = 0.27; 95% CI, 0.09-0.87), which suggests a lower risk of disease progression.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings indicate that empirical high-dose radioiodine therapy promoted beneficial effects and could be recommended for patients with TENIS syndrome, especially those with micrometastasis.

Unexpected focal fluorodeoxyglucose uptake in main organs; pass through or pass by?

Since the inception of fluorine-18 fluorodeoxyglucose (F-18 FDG), positron emission tomography/computed tomography (PET/CT) utilizing F-18 FDG has become widely accepted as a valuable imaging modality in the field of oncology, with global prevalence in clinical practice. Given that a single Torso PET/CT scan encompasses the anatomical region from the skull base to the upper thigh, the detection of incidental abnormal focal hypermetabolism in areas of limited clinical interest is both feasible and not uncommon. Numerous investigations have been undertaken to delineate the distinctive features of these findings, yet the outcomes have proven inconclusive. The incongruent results of these studies present a challenge for physicians, leaving them uncertain about the appropriate course of action. This article provides a succinct overview of the characteristics of fluorodeoxyglucose, followed by a comprehensive discussion of the imaging findings and clinical significance associated with incidental focal abnormal F-18 FDG activity in several representative organs. In conclusion, while the prevalence of unrecognized malignancy varies across organs, malignancies account for a substantial proportion, ranging from approximately one-third to over half, of incidental focal uptake. In light of these rates, physicians are urged to exercise vigilance in not disregarding unexpected uptake, facilitating more assured clinical decisions, and advocating for further active evaluation.

Imaging-based characterization of tumoral heterogeneity for personalized cancer treatment

With personalized tumor therapy, understanding and addressing the heterogeneity of malignant tumors is becoming increasingly important. Heterogeneity can be found within one lesion (intralesional) and between several tumor lesions emerging from one primary tumor (interlesional). The heterogeneous tumor cells may show a different response to treatment due to their biology, which in turn influences the outcome of the affected patients and the choice of therapeutic agents. Therefore, both intra- and interlesional heterogeneity should be addressed at the diagnostic stage. While genetic and biological heterogeneity are important parameters in molecular tumor characterization and in histopathology, they are not yet addressed routinely in medical imaging. This article summarizes the recently established markers for tumor heterogeneity in imaging as well as heterogeneous/mixed response to therapy. Furthermore, a look at emerging markers is given. The ultimate goal of this overview is to provide comprehensive understanding of tumor heterogeneity and its implications for radiology and for communication with interdisciplinary teams in oncology. KEY POINTS::   · Tumor heterogeneity can be described within one lesion (intralesional) or between several lesions (interlesional).. · The heterogeneous biology of tumor cells can lead to a mixed therapeutic response and should be addressed in diagnostics and the therapeutic regime.. · Quantitative image diagnostics can be enhanced using AI, improved histopathological methods, and liquid profiling in the future..

I-PET score: Combining whole body iodine and 18 F-FDG PET/CT imaging to predict progression in structurally or biochemically incomplete thyroid cancer

OBJECTIVE

We propose a new scoring system (I-PET) combining whole body scan (WBS) and FDG findings to identify patients who have or are likely to become refractory to radioactive iodine.

DESIGN

Retrospective analysis of 142 patients age >18 with differentiated thyroid cancer who had a F-18 labelled fluoro-2-deoxyglucose (¹⁸ F-FDG) positron emission tomography (PET) and WBS within a 6-month period between 2010 and 2020. Pairs of ¹⁸ F-FDG PET and WBS were reviewed by three independent nuclear medicine physicians and an I-PET score was assigned: I-PET [0]: Iodine -ve/FDG -ve, I-PET [1]: Iodine +ve/FDG -ve, I-PET [2]: Iodine +ve/FDG +ve and I-PET [3]: Iodine -ve/FDG +ve. Patients with FDG +ve lesions (I-PET [2] and I-PET [3]) were further classified into groups A and B if SUVmax was ≤5 or >5, respectively. Follow-up data were obtained by chart review. Progression was defined as structural progression as per RECIST 1.1 or further surgical intervention; or biochemical progression as unstimulated thyroglobulin increasing >20% from baseline.

RESULTS

Of 142 patients included in the study 121 patients had follow-up data available for review. At baseline, 49 patients were classified as I-PET [0], 10 as I-PET [1], 16 as I-PET [2] and 46 as I-PET [3]. Progression was seen in 11/49 (22%) of I-PET [0], 4/10 (40%) of I-PET [1], 10/16 (63%) of I-PET [2] and 34/46 (74%) of I-PET [3] (p < 0.001). I-PET [2B] and I-PET [3B] had a progression rate of 88% (7/8) and 78% (25/32), respectively. I-PET [3B] were 9.6 times more likely to commence multikinase inhibitor therapy (p = 0.001) and had 8 times greater mortality (p = 0.003) than patients in other I-PET groups combined.

CONCLUSION

I-PET is a simple readily acquired imaging biomarker that potentially enhances the dynamic risk stratification and guide treatment in thyroid cancer.

Circ 003390/Eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4A3 promoted cell migration and proliferation in endometrial cancer via vascular endothelial growth factor signaling by miR-195-5p

The differential expression of circRNA in different biological samples renders it as an ideal biomarker for disease diagnosis and identification of tissue development. In addition, the gradual clarification of the mode of action of circRNA in disease makes it as a potential therapeutic target. The purpose of this study is to investigate the role and regulating mechanism of circular RNA has circ 003390 (circWEE1) on Endometrial cancer (EC) genesis. To estimate clinical values of circWEE1 on cell migration and proliferation in EC, and its possible mechanisms. The expression of circWEE1 and EIF4A3in EC cells have been evaluated using qPCR and Western blot. The expression of circWEE1 and EIF4A3 levels were increased in patients with EC. Over-expression of circWEE1 or down-regulation of miR-195-5p promoted cell migration and proliferation in EC. Next, we verified that eIF4A3 binds to the circWEE1 mRNA transcript, circWEE1 served as a sponge that directly targeted miR-195-5p. Bioinformatics prediction forecast that miR-195-5p directly targeted VEGF at 3'-UTR, which was confirmed by luciferase reporter assay. Our findings indicate that Circular RNA hsa circWEE1/EIF4A3 promoted cell migration and proliferation in EC via VEGF signaling by miR-195-5p, which could provide pivotal potential therapeutic targets for the treatment of EC.

Assessment of Different Radioiodine Doses for Post-ablation Therapy of Thyroid Remnants: A Systematic Review

The determination of radioiodine remnant ablation (RRA) dosage in post-operation thyroid residual tissues resection has been largely subject of discussion, yet no concise conclusion is released through systematic review studies. In this study, we conducted a systematic review of comparative experiments to evaluate and compare the efficacy of different prescribed dosages of radioiodine in post-op thyroid residual tissues resection among low, intermediate, and high-risk patients to approve the common method. Using automated searches, studies were collected from PubMed, Google Scholar, Elsevier, Scopus, and UpToDate, all until April 2021. Alongside the aforementioned sources, comparative experiments were added in for further investigation. Overall, 4000 patients with papillary thyroid cancer, differentiated thyroid carcinoma (DTC), metastasized and non-metastasized thyroid cancer took part in twenty-one trials are assessed. We discovered no significant difference in successful thyroid residual tissues excision between low-activity and high-activity radioiodine treatment in people with low and intermediate risk. In these individuals, there was no significant difference between the high therapeutic dose of 3700 MBq and the lesser dose of 1850 MBq for RRA. However, high-dose treatment usually yielded superior results. Low activity RRA causes fewer adverse effects in metastasis-free patients than high-activity 3.7 GBq. There was no significant therapeutic difference regarding treatment efficacy in patients with low and moderate risks. However, in patients with high-risk status, applying a high-dose regimen of RRA produced a significantly better response.

Crosstalk Between Abnormal TSHR Signaling Activation and PTEN/PI3K in the Dedifferentiation of Thyroid Cancer Cells

Iodide uptake and the metabolism of thyroid cells are regulated by thyrotropin (TSH)-TSH receptor (TSHR) signaling. Thus, it is necessary to elevate serum TSH levels by T4 withdraw or rTSH administration to facilitate radioiodide (¹³¹I) therapy for differentiated thyroid cancer (DTC). However, non-iodide-avid metastases of DTC which is dedifferentiated do not respond to stimulation by high levels of TSH, suggesting abnormal TSH-TSHR signal transduction in cancer cells. In addition, PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling activation has been shown to be associated with the dedifferentiated phenotype of thyroid cancer, but the mechanism remains elusive. Therefore, in this study, we aimed to explore the role of abnormal TSH-TSHR signaling activation in regulating iodide uptake and cell mobility in thyroid cancer and its relationship with PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling. We found that in thyroid cancer cells, TSH binds TSHR coupled to the Gα_12/13 protein and then activates RhoA through interacting with leukemia associated RhoA guanine exchange factor (LARG). This results in a promigration tumorigenic phenotype independent of canonical TSHR-Gα_S signaling that regulates the expression of molecules involved in iodine uptake and metabolism. We observed that signaling pathways downstream of Gα_12/13 signaling were increased, while that of Gα_s signaling was decreased in thyroid cancer cells undergoing dedifferentiation compared to control cells following stimulation with different levels of TSH. PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling activation enhanced Gα_12/13 signaling through increasing LARG levels but also inhibited the expression of molecules downstream of Gα_s signaling, including thyroid-specific molecules, and iodide uptake. In summary, our results demonstrate the noncanonical activation of TSH-TSHR signaling and its role in increasing the cell mobility and dedifferentiation of thyroid cancer through crosstalk with PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling.

Investigating 18F-FDG PET/CT Parameters as Prognostic Markers for Differentiated Thyroid Cancer: A Systematic Review

Aims: The aim of this study was to determine whether ¹⁸F-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography/computed tomography (¹⁸F-FDG PET/CT) parameters might be prognostic markers for patients with differentiated thyroid carcinoma (DTC).

Methods: We searched for eligible articles in PubMed, EMBASE (Ovid), Cochrane Library, and ClinicalTrials.gov from inception to February 2021. We included studies addressing the association between ¹⁸F-FDG PET/CT parameters and clinical outcomes among patients with DTC. Quality assessment was performed using the Quality in Prognosis Studies (QUIPS) tool.

Results: A total of 25 studies including 2,954 patients (1,994 females, 67.5%) were included; 2,416 patients (81.8%) had papillary thyroid carcinoma (PTC), and the mean or median follow-up time ranged from 19.1 months to 17.1 years. Thirteen (52.0%) studies were assessed as “unclear” for the domain of study participation. The most common timing of PET/CT scans was after thyroidectomy (in 20 of 25 studies, 80%), especially in patients with an elevated thyroglobulin (Tg) and a negative radioiodine whole-body scan (WBS). The most common PET parameter was FDG uptake. Twelve of 17 (70.6%) and 12 of 12 (100%) studies showed an association between PET/CT parameters and disease progression and survival in patients with DTC, respectively.

Conclusion:¹⁸F-FDG PET/CT parameters alone or combined with other variables can serve as prognostic markers to identify DTC patients with poor outcomes, especially in the setting of an elevated Tg and a negative WBS. Future research is needed to confirm these findings and to examine the prognostic value of PET/CT parameters for DTC patients, considering the heterogeneity in PET/CT parameters, unclear information of patients, and PET/CT-adapted treatment modifications.

FDG PET Predicts the Effects of 131I and Prognosis for Patients with Bone Metastases from Differentiated Thyroid Carcinoma

Background

¹⁸F-FDG PET and ¹³¹I scans are important in the detection of metastases from differentiated thyroid carcinoma (DTC). The relationship of FDG and radioiodine (RAI) metabolism in bone metastases (BMs) from DTC and its prognostic value on RAI treatment is not clear.

Methods

The retrospective study included DTC patients with BMs from two medical centers, who underwent ¹⁸F-FDG PET/CT scans and RAI therapy. Therapeutic response was evaluated by serum thyroglobulin (Tg) levels and anatomical imaging changes.

Results

The analyses were performed on 30 patients with 72 BMs. Forty-two (42/72, 58%) lesions displayed simultaneous ¹³¹I and ¹⁸F-FDG uptake. BMs with positive ¹⁸F-FDG uptake had a less favorable response to RAI therapy in comparison to those with negative ¹⁸F-FDG uptake (p = 0.018), even in ¹³¹I-avid lesions (p = 0.033). Sixteen (53%) patients had disease progression with a median PFI of 26 months (range: 3 to 89 months). Compared to those with ¹³¹I-avid but non-FDG-avid BMs, patients presenting with ¹⁸F-FDG-avid BMs had shorter PFI, whether with ¹³¹I uptake (p = 0.002) or without (p = 0.002).

Conclusion

More than half of BMs (58%) from DTC show simultaneous ¹⁸F-FDG and ¹³¹I uptakes which are contrary to the flip-flop phenomenon (¹³¹I negative and ¹⁸F-FDG positive). Regardless of ¹³¹I uptake, ¹⁸F-FDG uptake of BMs portends a less favorable therapeutic response and poorer prognosis for patients with DTC.

Impact of FDG-PET on therapy management and outcome of differentiated thyroid carcinoma patients with elevated thyroglobulin despite negative iodine scintigraphy

AIM

 The objective of this study was to assess the impact of implementing FDG-PET imaging in treatment algorithms for differentiated thyroid cancer with suspected recurrence. Primary end points were overall, event-free and disease-specific survival. Secondary end points were therapies, disease control and the sensitivity and specificity of PET imaging.

METHODS

 194 patients with DTC treated at our center from 1996 to 2014 following thyroidectomy and routine 131I ablation with no remaining 131I uptake in whole-body scans but persisting or rising thyroglobulin values were enrolled in this retrospective analysis. Of these, 149 (76.8 %) received an 18F-FDG scan (PET group) whereas the remaining 45 patients (23.2 %) did not (non-PET group). Survival, disease-specific characteristics at inclusion, disease control and therapies were compared.

RESULTS

 Patients of the PET group generally showed characteristics associated with higher disease activity from inclusion onwards. This did not translate to statistically significant differences in survival. If PET imaging was performed following inclusion, patients received significantly less radioiodine treatments during the first nine months after inclusion (63.1 % of the PET-group vs 82.2 % of the non-PET group). Simultaneously, patients tended to receive more surgeries following PET imaging (27.5 % PET-group vs 13.3 % non-PET group). No significant differences regarding disease control were observed.

CONCLUSION

 The early use of FDG-PET imaging in cases of suspected recurrence or existence of dedifferentiated DTC can lead to changes in therapy management, specifically identifying patients unlikely to benefit from additional radioiodine therapy who would instead qualify for surgical therapy methods.

The Inhibition of MicroRNA-139-5p Promoted Osteoporosis of Bone Marrow-Derived Mesenchymal Stem Cells by Targeting Wnt/Beta-Catenin Signaling Pathway by NOTCH1

We investigated the therapeutic effects of microRNA-139-5p in relation to osteoporosis of bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cell (BMSCs) and its underlying mechanisms. In this study we used a dexamethasone-induced in vivo model of osteoporosis and BMSCs were used for the in vitro model. Real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and gene chip were used to analyze the expression of microRNA-139-5p. In an osteoporosis rat model, the expression of microRNA-139-5p was increased, compared with normal group. Downregulation of microRNA-139-5p promotes cell proliferation and osteogenic differentiation in BMSCs. Especially, up-regulation of microRNA-139-5p reduced cell proliferation and osteogenic differentiation in BMSCs. Overexpression of miR-139-5p induced Wnt/β-catenin and down-regulated NOTCH1 signaling in BMSCs. Down-regulation of miR-139-5p suppressed Wnt/β-catenin and induced NOTCH1 signaling in BMSCs. The inhibition of NOTCH1 reduced the effects of anti-miR-139-5p on cell proliferation and osteogenic differentiation in BMSCs. Activation of Wnt/β-catenin also inhibited the effects of anti-miR-139-5p on cell proliferation and osteogenic differentiation in BMSCs. Taken together, our results suggested that the inhibition of microRNA-139-5p promotes osteogenic differentiation of BMSCs via targeting Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway by NOTCH1.

miR-98-5p promotes apoptosis and inhibits migration and cell growth in papillary thyroid carcinoma through Bax/Caspase-3 by HMGA2

Background

The aims of this study were to investigate the function and mechanism of miRNA‐98‐5p in papillary thyroid carcinoma.

Methods

Quantitative real‐time polymerase chain reaction (qRT‐PCR) was used to measure the expression of miRNA‐98‐5p in papillary thyroid carcinoma. Western blotting and caspase‐3/9 activity levels, flow cytometric analysis, cell migration assays, DAPI assay, cell proliferation assay, and LDH activity levels were used in this study.

Results

In patient with papillary thyroid carcinoma, miRNA‐98‐5p was reduced, and HMGA2 was increased. Downregulation of miRNA‐98‐5p promoted the cell growth, inhibited apoptosis, and induced HMGA2 protein expression in papillary thyroid carcinoma cell via activation of HMGA2. Overexpression of miRNA‐98‐5p inhibited the cell growth, induced apoptosis, and suppressed HMGA2 protein expression in papillary thyroid carcinoma cell through the suppression of HMGA2. Si‐HMGA2 inhibited the effects of anti‐miRNA‐98‐5p on cell growth of papillary thyroid carcinoma.

Conclusion

Therefore, these results suggested the regulation of HMGA2 suppresses proliferation of papillary thyroid carcinoma through miRNA‐98‐5p.

Personalized treatment options for thyroid cancer: current perspectives

Thyroid cancer is one of the most common endocrine malignancies, with increasing incidence all over the world. In spite of good prognosis for differentiated thyroid carcinoma, for an unknown reason, about 5–10% of the patients, the cancer will show aggressive behavior, develop metastasis, and be refractory to treatment strategies like radioactive iodine. Regarding the genetic information, each thyroid cancer patient can be considered as an individual unique one, with unique genetic information. Contrary to standard chemotherapy drugs, target therapy components aim at one or more definite molecular pathway on cancer cells, so their selection is underlying patient’s genetic information. Nowadays, several mutations and rearrangements including BRAF, VEGF receptors, RET, and RET/PTC, KDR, KIT, PDGFRA, CD274, and JAK2 are taken into account for the therapeutic components like larotrectinib (TRK inhibitor), vemurafenib, sunitinib, sorafenib, selumetinib, and axitinib. With the new concept of personalized treatment of thyroid cancer diagnoses, planning treatment, finding out how well treatment will work, and estimating a prognosis has changed for the better over the last decade.

Factors Associated with Dose Determination of Radioactive Iodine Therapy for Differentiated Thyroid Cancer

Radioactive iodine (RAI) therapy for differentiated thyroid cancer has been successfully used for more than 70 years. However, there is still plenty of controversy surrounding the use and doses of radioiodine. There is insufficient evidence to answer the questions. Recent American Thyroid Association (ATA) guidelines seem to favor low-dose RAI, based on recent clinical trials and meta-analyses. However, long-term follow-up data remains limited, and there are additional factors we should consider that might affect the efficacy of RAI therapy. Therefore, until sufficient data are available, it is necessary to remain cautious about determining RAI doses by considering multiple patient-specific variables.

Clinical utility of 18F-FDG PET/CT in the follow-up of a large cohort of patients with high-risk differentiated thyroid carcinoma

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the clinical utility of 18F-FDG PET/CT in patients with high-risk DTC.

SUBJECTS AND METHODS

Single-center retrospective study with 74 patients with high-risk differentiated thyroid cancer (DTC), classified in 4 groups. Group 1: patients with positive sTg or TgAb, subdivided in Group 1A: negative RxWBS and no foci of metastases identified at conventional image (n = 9); Group 1B: RxWBS not compatible with suspicious foci at conventional image or not proportional to sTg level (n = 13); Group 2: patients with histological findings of aggressive DTC variants (n = 21) and Group 3: patients with positive RxWBS (n = 31).

RESULTS

18F-FDG PET/CT identified undifferentiated lesions and helped restage the disease in groups 1B and 2. The scan helped guide clinical judgment in 9/13 (69%) patients of group 1B, 10/21 (48%) patients of group 2 and 2/31 (6%) patients of group 3. There was no clinical benefit associated with group 1A. 18F-FDG PET/CT was associated with progressive disease.

CONCLUSION

18F-FDG PET/CT is a useful tool in the follow-up of patients with high-risk DTC, mainly in the group of RxWBS not compatible with suspicious foci at conventional image or not proportional to sTg level and in those with aggressive DTC variants. Additionally, this study showed that 18F-FDG PET/CT was associated with progression and helped display undifferentiated lesions guiding clinical assessments regarding surgeries or expectant treatments.

The incidence of thyroid cancer in focal hypermetabolic thyroid lesions: an 18F-FDG PET/CT study in more than 6000 patients

BACKGROUND

The clinical significance of incidental thyroid abnormalities discovered in fluorine-18 fluorodeoxyglucose (F-FDG) PET/computed tomography (CT) (FDG PET/CT) studies remains controversial. The aim of this large retrospective study was to (a) determine the prevalence of focal F-FDG thyroid uptake on whole-body F-FDG PET/CT studies carried out for nonthyroid cancers and (b) to test whether intense focal F-FDG thyroid uptake is associated with malignancy.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A total of 11 921 F-FDG PET/CT studies in 6216 patients carried out at our institution between January 2012 and December 2014 were analyzed. We retrospectively reviewed the medical records of these patients. Eight hundred and forty-five/6216 (13.6%) patients had a thyroid incidentaloma on the basis of the clinical F-FDG PET/CT report. One hundred and sixty/845 (18.9%) of these underwent ultrasound and 98 (61.3%) of these underwent a fine-needle aspiration (FNA). Twenty-six of these 98 (26.5%) patients underwent thyroidectomy. Thyroid lesion and background standardized uptake value (SUVs) for each patient were measured upon review of the F-FDG PET/CT study. We measured maximum standardized uptake value (SUVmax), thyroid to background TL/TBG, thyroid to bloodpool TL/BP and thyroid to liver TL/L ratios in benign and malignant lesions. Receiver operating curves were calculated to determine optimal cut-off values between malignant and benign lesions.

RESULTS

Twenty-one of the 98 patients who underwent FNA biopsy or thyroidectomy had malignant disease (21.4%). Malignant lesions had significantly higher thyroid lesion SUVmax, TL/TBG, TL/BP, and TL/L than benign nodules. The receiver operating curves derived cut-off ratio TL/TBG of more than 2.0 differentiated benign from malignant lesions best with a specificity and sensitivity of 0.76 and 0.88, respectively.

CONCLUSION

The incidence of malignancy in biopsied focal hypermetabolic thyroid lesions is 21.4%. Lesions on F-FDG PET/CT studies, with a ratio TL/TBG more than 2.0, warrant further work-up with ultrasound and FNA to exclude malignancy.

Redifferentiation of Radioiodine Refractory Differentiated Thyroid Cancer for Reapplication of I-131 Therapy

Although most differentiated thyroid cancers show excellent prognosis, treating radioiodine refractory differentiated thyroid cancer (RR-DTC) is challenging. Various therapies, including chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and targeted therapy, have been applied for RR-DTC but show limited effectiveness. Redifferentiation followed by radioiodine therapy is a promising alternative therapy for RR-DTC. Retinoic acids, histone deacetylase inhibitors, and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma agonists are classically used as redifferentiation agents, and recent targeted molecules are also used for this purpose. Appropriate selection of redifferentiation agents for each patient, using current knowledge about genetic and biological characteristics of thyroid cancer, might increase the efficacy of redifferentiation treatment. In this review, we will discuss the mechanisms of these redifferentiation agents, results of recent clinical trials, and promising preclinical results.

Prognostic Value of Volumetric Parameters Measured by Pretreatment 18F FDG PET/CT in Patients With Cutaneous Malignant Melanoma

PURPOSE OF THE REPORT

This study was performed to evaluate the prognostic relevance of metabolic tumor volume (MTV) and total lesion glycolysis (TLG) measured using F FDG PET/CT in patients with primary cutaneous malignant melanoma (CMM).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We conducted a retrospective review (July 2005 to November 2010) of 41 patients with a histological diagnosis of CMM who underwent pretreatment F FDG PET/CT. PET parameters (maximum standardized uptake value [SUVmax], MTV, and TLG) of the primary tumor were measured. Clinical variables such as age, sex, clinical stage, location and thickness of the primary lesion, and existence of ulceration were also assessed. Univariate and multivariate analyses for disease-free survival (DFS) and melanoma-specific survival (MSS) were performed using the Kaplan-Meier method and Cox proportional hazards models.

RESULTS

SUVmax and TLG were found to be significantly higher in patients with recurrence than in patients without recurrence (3.98 ± 2.91 vs 1.89 ± 1.35, P = 0.0145; 9.16 ± 8.44 vs 3.72 ± 3.64, P = 0.0249). SUVmax and TLG were also found to be significantly higher in nonsurvivors than in survivors (4.21 ± 3.06 vs 2.00 ± 1.46, P = 0.0260; 10.53 ± 8.83 vs 3.67 ± 3.44, P = 0.0170). The optimal cutoff values for DFS determined using a time-dependent receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve were 1.8 for SUVmax, 6.07 cm for MTV, and 4.046 for TLG. Sixteen (39%) of the 41 patients experienced recurrence during the follow-up period. In univariate analysis, age (P = 0.0382), male sex (P = 0.0187), ulceration of the primary lesion (P = 0.0001), stage ≥ III (P = 0.0011), SUVmax greater than 1.8 (P = 0.0006), MTV greater than 6.07 cm (P = 0.0136), and TLG greater than 4.046 (P = 0.0010) affected DFS, whereas the other variables (location of the primary lesion and thickness of primary lesion) did not. After adjustment for the effects of the clinical parameters (age, sex, clinical stage, and existence of ulceration), SUVmax, MTV, and TLG were all significant predictors of DFS, and the best predictive factor was SUVmax. Thirteen (32%) of the 41 patients died because of CMM during the follow-up period. The optimal cutoff values for MSS determined using a time-dependent ROC curve were 2.2 for SUVmax, 4.02 cm for MTV, and 4.352 for TLG. In univariate analysis, ulceration of the primary lesion (P = 0.0005), SUVmax greater than 2.2 (P = 0.0001), MTV greater than 4.02 cm (P = 0.0071), and TLG greater than 4.352 (P = 0.0001) affected MSS, whereas the other variables (age, sex, clinical stage, primary lesion site, and thickness of the primary lesion) did not. After adjustment for the effect of the clinical parameter (existence of ulceration), MTV and TLG were significant predictors of MSS, and the best predictive factor of MSS was TLG.

CONCLUSIONS

Pretreatment MTV and TLG may be useful in stratifying the likelihood of recurrence and melanoma-specific death, and TLG was found to be the best predictive marker for predicting melanoma-specific death.

Personalized Medicine Based on Theranostic Radioiodine Molecular Imaging for Differentiated Thyroid Cancer

Molecular imaging based personalized therapy has been a fascinating concept for individualized therapeutic strategy, which is able to attain the highest efficacy and reduce adverse effects in certain patients. Theranostics, which integrates diagnostic testing to detect molecular targets for particular therapeutic modalities, is one of the key technologies that contribute to the success of personalized medicine. Although the term "theranostics" was used after the second millennium, its basic principle was applied more than 70 years ago in the field of thyroidology with radioiodine molecular imaging. Differentiated thyroid cancer, which arises from follicular cells in the thyroid, is the most common endocrine malignancy, and theranostic radioiodine has been successfully applied to diagnose and treat differentiated thyroid cancer, the applications of which were included in the guidelines published by various thyroid or nuclear medicine societies. Through better pathophysiologic understanding of thyroid cancer and advancements in nuclear technologies, theranostic radioiodine contributes more to modern tailored personalized management by providing high therapeutic effect and by avoiding significant adverse effects in differentiated thyroid cancer. This review details the inception of theranostic radioiodine and recent radioiodine applications for differentiated thyroid cancer management as a prototype of personalized medicine based on molecular imaging.

Novel Approaches to Thyroid Cancer Treatment and Response Assessment

The incidence of thyroid cancer has been increasing. After total thyroidectomy of well-differentiated thyroid tumors with intermediate- or high-risk features on pathology, radioiodine remains one of the mainstays of therapy for both thyroid remnant ablation as well as for treatment of metastatic disease. SPECT/CT, a relatively new modality, has been shown to play a pivotal role predominantly in the post-therapy setting by changing the risk stratification of patients with thyroid cancer. In the case of radioiodine treatment failure, FDG-PET/CT may provide prognostic information based on extent and intensity of metabolically active metastatic sites as well as serve as an important imaging test for response assessment in patients treated with chemotherapy, targeted therapies, or radiotherapy, thereby affecting patient management in multiple ways. The role of newer redifferentiation drugs has been evaluated with the use of I-124 PET/CT.

Outcomes and Prognostic Factors in Radioiodine Refractory Differentiated Thyroid Carcinomas

BACKGROUND

Outcomes vary among patients with radioiodine refractory (RR) differentiated thyroid cancer (DTC). The prognostic factors for survival are not well-known, resulting in difficulty in selecting patients for new targeted therapies. We assessed overall survival (OS) and cancer-specific survival (CSS) from RR-DTC to identify prognostic factors associated with survival.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

The data on all cases of metastatic RR-DTC treated in our center from 1990 to 2011 were retrospectively reviewed. Survival was estimated using the Kaplan-Meier method; associated prognostic factors were assessed using Cox's model.

RESULTS

Of 153 cases of metastatic DTC, 59% (n = 91) met a criterion for RR: that is, 60% (n = 55) had at least 1 metastasis without (131)I uptake; 21% (n = 19) had progressive disease (PD) despite (131)I; 19% (n = 17) had persistent disease despite a cumulative activity of (131)I of ≥600 mCi. After the diagnosis of RR, median OS was 8.9 years (95% confidence interval [CI]: 5.4-NR); median CSS was 9.6 years (95% CI: 6.01-NR). In multivariate analyses, PD despite (131)I as a criterion for RR disease and the time from initial diagnosis of DTC to diagnosis of RR <3 years were the only independent prognostic factors for poor OS and CSS. Thyroglobulin doubling time (Tg-DT) was assessed in 31 of 91 cases. Among the 11 patients with Tg-DT for <1 year or undetectable Tg, 6 deaths occurred, whereas only 3 died of 20 patients with Tg-DT >1 year or negative Tg-DT.

CONCLUSION

The identification of prognostic factors for decreased survival in RR-DTC may improve the selection of patients for targeted agents.

IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE

This study shows a great heterogeneity in terms of prognosis in radioiodine refractory differentiated thyroid carcinoma. Poorer prognosis is observed in patients with tumor progression or with a diagnosis of radioiodine resistance within 3 years after the initial diagnosis of thyroid cancer. Those findings could lead to improvements in the selection of patients for targeted therapies.

Superiority of delayed risk stratification in differentiated thyroid cancer after total thyroidectomy and radioactive iodine ablation

AIM

The aim of this study was to validate the effectiveness of delayed risk stratification (DRS) in predicting structural progression and compare the predictive value of American Thyroid Association (ATA) risk stratification with that of DRS in patients with differentiated thyroid cancer (DTC).

METHODS

A total of 398 patients with DTC who underwent surgery followed by radioactive iodine ablation were enrolled. Patients were categorized as having excellent response, acceptable response, biochemical incomplete response, or structural incomplete response at 8-15 months' evaluation after radioactive iodine ablation for DRS. Effectiveness of DRS was evaluated according to structural progression-free survival (PFS; median follow-up, 10.7 years).

RESULTS

A total of 229 patients (57.5%) were classified as having excellent response, 78 (19.6%) as having acceptable response, 62 (15.6%) as having biochemical incomplete response, and 29 patients (7.3%) as having structural incomplete response. After DRS, 60.2% of intermediate-risk patients and 20.5% of high-risk patients were shifted to the excellent response category. Sixty-nine patients (17.3%) showed structural progression. DRS showed statistical difference in PFS (hazard ratio, 4.268; 95% confidence interval, 3.258-5.477; P<0.001). In multivariate analysis of ATA risk stratification and DRS, DRS was significantly associated with PFS (hazard ratio, 4.383; 95% confidence interval, 3.250-5.912; P<0.001), but ATA risk stratification was not. There was no significant difference in deviances between the use of DRS alone and the use of both DRS and ATA risk stratification (χ=0.103, d.f.=1, P=0.748).

CONCLUSION

DRS is superior to ATA risk stratification in predicting structural disease progression for DTC patients.

Difference of clinical and radiological characteristics according to radioiodine avidity in pulmonary metastases of differentiated thyroid cancer

PURPOSE

To evaluate differences in clinical, radiological and laboratory findings between pulmonary metastasis with and without radioiodine avidity in thyroidectomized differentiated thyroid cancer (DTC) patients with pulmonary metastasis who underwent high-dose I-131 treatment.

METHODS

A total of 105 DTC patients with pulmonary metastasis (age, 48.7 ± 16.8 years; women/men, 78/27) were included. Clinical characteristics, chest computed tomography (CT), F-18 fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography (F-18 FDG PET)/CT and thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)-stimulated serum thyroglobulin (s-Tg) level were compared between patients with and without radioiodine uptake in metastatic lung lesions. The response to I-131 treatment was evaluated with follow-up study.

RESULTS

Eighty-nine patients (84.8 %, whole-body scan positive [WBSP] group) showed radioiodine uptake at pulmonary metastasis on post I-131 treatment whole-body scan (WBS) and 16 patients (15.2 %, WBS negative [WBSN] group) did not show uptake at pulmonary lesions on the WBS. Ninety percent and 87 % of the WBSP group had visible metastatic lesions on CT and F-18 FDG PET/CT; however, all of the patients in the WBSN group showed lesions on CT and F-18 FDG PET/CT. In seven (6.7 %) of 105 patients, CT and F-18 FDG PET/CT could not detect pulmonary lesions, which were diagnosed by post I-131 treatment WBS. Complete disease remission was achieved in six (5.7 %) patients and all of them were in the WBSP group.

CONCLUSIONS

Metastatic lesion was not visualized on chest CT or F-18 FDG PET/CT in 6.7 % of DTC patients with pulmonary metastasis and the lesion was visualized only on post I-131 treatment WBS. Complete remission was achieved in 5.7 % of DTC patients with pulmonary metastasis and the cured metastases were non-visualizing or micronodular lesions on chest CT and demonstrated radioiodine avidity on post I-131 treatment WBS.