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Wang Y, Wang J. Intravital Imaging of Inflammatory Response in Liver Disease. Front Cell Dev Biol 2022; 10:922041. [PMID: 35837329 PMCID: PMC9274191 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2022.922041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2022] [Accepted: 05/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The healthy liver requires a strictly controlled crosstalk between immune and nonimmune cells to maintain its function and homeostasis. A well-conditioned immune system can effectively recognize and clear noxious stimuli by a self-limited, small-scale inflammatory response. This regulated inflammatory process enables the liver to cope with daily microbial exposure and metabolic stress, which is beneficial for hepatic self-renewal and tissue remodeling. However, the failure to clear noxious stimuli or dysregulation of immune response can lead to uncontrolled liver inflammation, liver dysfunction, and severe liver disease. Numerous highly dynamic circulating immune cells and sessile resident immune and parenchymal cells interact and communicate with each other in an incredibly complex way to regulate the inflammatory response in both healthy and diseased liver. Intravital imaging is a powerful tool to visualize individual cells in vivo and has been widely used for dissecting the behavior and interactions between various cell types in the complex architecture of the liver. Here, we summarize some new findings obtained with the use of intravital imaging, which enhances our understanding of the complexity of immune cell behavior, cell–cell interaction, and spatial organization during the physiological and pathological liver inflammatory response.
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2
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Intravital Optical Imaging to Monitor Anti-Tumor Immunological Response in Preclinical Models. Bioanalysis 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-78338-9_4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022] Open
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3
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Liang Y, Walczak P. Long term intravital single cell tracking under multiphoton microscopy. J Neurosci Methods 2020; 349:109042. [PMID: 33340557 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2020.109042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2020] [Revised: 12/07/2020] [Accepted: 12/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Visualizing and tracking cells over time in a living organism has been a much-coveted dream before the invention of intravital microscopy. The opaque nature of tissue was a major hurdle that was remedied by the multiphoton microscopy. With the advancement of optical imaging and fluorescent labeling tools, intravital high resolution imaging has become increasingly accessible over the past few years. Long-term intravital tracking of single cells (LIST) under multiphoton microscopy provides a unique opportunity to gain insight into the longitudinal changes in the morphology, migration, or function of cells or subcellular structures. It is particularly suitable for studying slow-evolving cellular and molecular events during normal development or disease progression, without losing the opportunity of catching fast events such as calcium signals. Here, we review the application of LIST under 2-photon microscopy in various fields of neurobiology and discuss challenges and new directions in labeling and imaging methods for LIST. Overall, this review provides an overview of current applications of LIST in mammals, which is an emerging field that will contribute to a better understanding of essential molecular and cellular events in health and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yajie Liang
- Department of Diagnostic Radiology and Nuclear Medicine, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA.
| | - Piotr Walczak
- Department of Diagnostic Radiology and Nuclear Medicine, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
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4
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Schippers A, Hübel J, Heymann F, Clahsen T, Eswaran S, Schlepütz S, Püllen R, Gaßler N, Tenbrock K, Tacke F, Wagner N. MAdCAM-1/α4β7 Integrin-Mediated Lymphocyte/Endothelium Interactions Exacerbate Acute Immune-Mediated Hepatitis in Mice. Cell Mol Gastroenterol Hepatol 2020; 11:1227-1250.e1. [PMID: 33316453 PMCID: PMC8053699 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcmgh.2020.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2020] [Revised: 12/03/2020] [Accepted: 12/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND & AIMS Aberrant lymphocyte homing could potentially link inflammatory processes in the intestine and the liver, as distinct hepatobiliary diseases frequently develop as extra-intestinal manifestations in inflammatory bowel disease. In this study, we examined the role of the gut-tropic leukocyte adhesion molecule β7 integrin and its endothelial ligand mucosal addressin cell-adhesion molecule-1 (MAdCAM-1) in immune-mediated hepatitis in mice. METHODS Wild-type (WT) mice, MAdCAM-1-deficient mice, β7 integrin-deficient mice, RAG-2-deficient mice, RAG-2/MAdCAM-1 double-deficient mice, and RAG-2/β7 integrin double-deficient mice were subjected to concanavalin A (ConA)-induced hepatitis. The degree of hepatitis was evaluated by histology, flow cytometry, and expression analysis of inflammatory mediators. The motility of lymphocytes in progressive liver damage was assessed by intravital laser scanning multiphoton microscopy. RESULTS Ablation of MAdCAM-1 or β7 integrin ameliorated ConA-induced hepatitis in mice. β7 integrin-deficient lymphocytes caused less liver damage than WT lymphocytes in ConA-treated RAG-2-deficient mice. Moreover, WT lymphocytes caused less liver damage in ConA-treated RAG-2/β7 integrin double-deficient mice than in similarly treated RAG-2-deficient mice, indicating that β7 integrin expression contributes significantly to the liver damage mediated by innate immune cells. MAdCAM-1 expression was dependent on β7 integrin expression on adaptive and innate immune cells. Most importantly, lymphocytes in ConA-treated MAdCAM-1-deficient mice displayed more motility and less adhesion in the liver sinusoids in vivo, than lymphocytes in similarly treated WT mice. CONCLUSIONS These data suggest that β7 integrin expression on lymphocytes and innate immune cells contributes to MAdCAM-1 upregulation and liver damage in acute immune-mediated hepatitis, most likely by facilitating lymphocyte/sinusoidal endothelial cell interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angela Schippers
- Department of Pediatrics, Medical Faculty, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
| | - Jessica Hübel
- Department of Pediatrics, Medical Faculty, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
| | - Felix Heymann
- Department of Hepatology and Gastroenterology, Charité University Medicine Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Thomas Clahsen
- Department of Pediatrics, Medical Faculty, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
| | - Sreepradha Eswaran
- Department of Pediatrics, Medical Faculty, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
| | - Sarah Schlepütz
- Department of Pediatrics, Medical Faculty, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
| | - Robin Püllen
- Department of Pediatrics, Medical Faculty, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
| | - Nikolaus Gaßler
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Section of Pathology, Jena University Hospital, Jena, Germany
| | - Klaus Tenbrock
- Department of Pediatrics, Medical Faculty, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
| | - Frank Tacke
- Department of Hepatology and Gastroenterology, Charité University Medicine Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Norbert Wagner
- Department of Pediatrics, Medical Faculty, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany,Correspondence Address Correspondence to: Norbert Wagner, MD, Department of Pediatrics, RWTH Aachen University, Pauwelsstrasse 30, D-52074 Aachen, Germany. fax: +49 241-8082492.
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5
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Davis RP, Almishri W, Jenne CN, Swain MG. The Antidepressant Mirtazapine Activates Hepatic Macrophages, Facilitating Pathogen Clearance While Limiting Tissue Damage in Mice. Front Immunol 2020; 11:578654. [PMID: 33250892 PMCID: PMC7673391 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.578654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2020] [Accepted: 10/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Background and Aims Mirtazapine is an atypical antidepressant with antagonist activity for serotonin and histamine receptors. Clinical and experimental evidence suggests that, in addition to treating depression, mirtazapine also alters liver innate immunity and suppresses immune-driven hepatic macrophage activation. Liver macrophages, Kupffer cells, represent the largest collection of fixed macrophages in the body and are critical in regulating hepatic immunity. In addition to their capacity to regulate inflammation, Kupffer cells are key sentinels for clearing blood-borne pathogens, preventing their dissemination within the body. This process involves pathogen capture, phagocytosis, and activation-induced killing via reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. Therefore, we speculated that mirtazapine might adversely alter Kupffer cell pathogen-associated activation and killing. Methods Mice were treated with mirtazapine and time-dependent changes in Kupffer cells were characterized using intravital microscopy. Macrophage and neutrophil responses, bacterial dissemination, and liver damage were assessed following i.v. infection with a pathogenic strain of S. aureus. Results Mirtazapine rapidly (within 1.5 h) activates Kupffer cells, indicated by a loss of elongated shape with cellular rounding. However, this shape change did not result in impaired pathogen capture function, and, in fact, generated enhanced ROS production in response to S. aureus-induced sepsis. Neutrophil dynamics were altered with reduced cellular recruitment to the liver following infection. Bacterial dissemination post-intravenous administration was not altered by mirtazapine treatment; however, hepatic abscess formation was significantly reduced. Conclusions Mirtazapine rapidly activates Kupffer cells, associated with preserved bacterial capture functions and enhanced ROS generation capacity. Moreover, these changes in Kupffer cells were linked to a beneficial reduction in hepatic abscess size. In contrast to our initial speculation, mirtazapine may have beneficial effects in sepsis and warrants further exploration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachelle Paige Davis
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Infectious Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada.,Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Wagdi Almishri
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Infectious Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada.,Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Craig Neal Jenne
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Infectious Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada.,Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Mark Gordon Swain
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Infectious Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada.,Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
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6
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Ortega‐Ribera M, Hunt NJ, Gracia‐Sancho J, Cogger VC. The Hepatic Sinusoid in Aging and Disease: Update and Advances From the 20th Liver Sinusoid Meeting. Hepatol Commun 2020; 4:1087-1098. [PMID: 32626839 PMCID: PMC7327202 DOI: 10.1002/hep4.1517] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2019] [Revised: 03/17/2020] [Accepted: 03/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
This is a meeting report of the 2019 Liver Sinusoid Meeting, 20th International Symposium on Cells of the Hepatic Sinusoid, held in Sydney, Australia, in September 2019. The meeting, which was organized by the International Society for Hepatic Sinusoidal Research, provided an update on the recent advances in the field of hepatic sinusoid cells in relation to cell biology, aging, and liver disease, with particular focus on the molecular and cellular targets involved in hepatic fibrosis, nonalcoholic hepatic steatohepatitis, alcoholic liver disease, hepatocellular carcinoma, and cirrhosis. In addition, the meeting highlighted the recent advances in regenerative medicine, targeted nanotechnologies, therapeutics, and novel methodologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martí Ortega‐Ribera
- Liver Vascular Biology Research GroupBarcelona Hepatic Hemodynamic UnitInstitut d’Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i SunyerCentro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Hepáticas y DigestivasBarcelonaSpain
| | - Nicholas J. Hunt
- Centre for Education and Research on AgeingConcord Repatriation General HospitalANZAC Research InstituteAustralian Ageing and Alzheimers InstituteConcordSydneyNSWAustralia
- Faculty of Medicine and HealthUniversity of SydneySydneyNSWAustralia
| | - Jordi Gracia‐Sancho
- Liver Vascular Biology Research GroupBarcelona Hepatic Hemodynamic UnitInstitut d’Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i SunyerCentro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Hepáticas y DigestivasBarcelonaSpain
- HepatologyDepartment of Biomedical ResearchUniversity of BernInselspitalBernSwitzerland
| | - Victoria C. Cogger
- Centre for Education and Research on AgeingConcord Repatriation General HospitalANZAC Research InstituteAustralian Ageing and Alzheimers InstituteConcordSydneyNSWAustralia
- Faculty of Medicine and HealthUniversity of SydneySydneyNSWAustralia
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7
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Davis RP, Surewaard BGJ, Turk M, Carestia A, Lee WY, Petri B, Urbanski SJ, Coffin CS, Jenne CN. Optimization of In vivo Imaging Provides a First Look at Mouse Model of Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease (NAFLD) Using Intravital Microscopy. Front Immunol 2020; 10:2988. [PMID: 31969883 PMCID: PMC6960139 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.02988] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2019] [Accepted: 12/05/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease is a spectrum of liver pathology ranging from simple steatosis to steatohepatitis and can progress to diseases associated with poor outcomes including cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). NAFLD research has typically focused on the pathophysiology associated with lipid metabolism, using traditional measures such as histology and serum transaminase assessment; these methods have provided key information regarding NAFLD progression. Although valuable, these techniques are limited in providing further insight into the mechanistic details of inflammation associated with NAFLD. Intravital microscopy (IVM) is an advanced tool that allows for real-time visualization of cellular behavior and interaction in a living animal. Extensive IVM imaging has been conducted in liver, but, in the context of NAFLD, this technique has been regularly avoided due to significant tissue autofluorescence, a phenomenon that is exacerbated with steatosis. Here, we demonstrate that, using multiple imaging platforms and optimization techniques to minimize autofluorescence, IVM in fatty liver is possible. Successful fatty liver intravital imaging provides details on cell trafficking, recruitment, function, and behavior in addition to information about blood flow and vessel dynamics, information which was previously difficult to obtain. As more than 30% of the global population is overweight/obese, there is a significant proportion of the population at risk for NAFLD and complications due to NAFLD (liver decompensation, cirrhosis, HCC). IVM has the potential to elucidate the poorly understood mechanisms surrounding liver inflammation and NAFLD progression and possesses the potential to identify key processes that may be targeted for future therapeutic interventions in NAFLD patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachelle P Davis
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Infectious Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada.,Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Bas G J Surewaard
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Infectious Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada.,Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada.,Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Madison Turk
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Infectious Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada.,Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Agostina Carestia
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Infectious Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada.,Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Woo-Yong Lee
- Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada.,Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Björn Petri
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Infectious Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada.,Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Stefan J Urbanski
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Carla S Coffin
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Infectious Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada.,Department of Medicine, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Craig N Jenne
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Infectious Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada.,Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
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8
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State of the Art of Natural Killer Cell Imaging: A Systematic Review. Cancers (Basel) 2019; 11:cancers11070967. [PMID: 31324064 PMCID: PMC6678345 DOI: 10.3390/cancers11070967] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2019] [Revised: 05/20/2019] [Accepted: 07/03/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Natural killer (NK) cell therapy is a promising alternative to conventional T cell-based treatments, although there is a lack of diagnostic tools to predict and evaluate therapeutic outcomes. Molecular imaging can offer several approaches to non-invasively address this issue. In this study, we systematically reviewed the literature to evaluate the state of the art of NK cell imaging and its translational potential. PubMed and Scopus databases were searched for published articles on the imaging of NK cells in humans and preclinical models. Study quality was evaluated following Quality Assessment of Diagnostic Accuracy Studies (QUADAS-2) criteria. We pooled studies as follows: Optical, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and nuclear medicine imaging with a total of 21 studies (n = 5, n = 8 and n = 8, respectively). Considering the limitation of comparing different imaging modalities, it appears that optical imaging (OI) of NK cells is very useful in a preclinical setting, but has the least translational potential. MRI provides high quality images without ionizing radiations with lower sensitivity. Nuclear medicine is the only imaging technique that has been applied in humans (four papers), but results were not outstanding due to a limited number of enrolled patients. At present, no technique emerged as superior over the others and more standardization is required in conducting human and animal studies.
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9
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Guillot A, Tacke F. Liver Macrophages: Old Dogmas and New Insights. Hepatol Commun 2019; 3:730-743. [PMID: 31168508 PMCID: PMC6545867 DOI: 10.1002/hep4.1356] [Citation(s) in RCA: 206] [Impact Index Per Article: 41.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2019] [Accepted: 03/28/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Inflammation is a hallmark of virtually all liver diseases, such as liver cancer, fibrosis, nonalcoholic steatohepatitis, alcoholic liver disease, and cholangiopathies. Liver macrophages have been thoroughly studied in human disease and mouse models, unravelling that the hepatic mononuclear phagocyte system is more versatile and complex than previously believed. Liver macrophages mainly consist of liver‐resident phagocytes, or Kupffer cells (KCs), and bone marrow‐derived recruited monocytes. Although both cell populations in the liver demonstrate principal functions of macrophages, such as phagocytosis, danger signal recognition, cytokine release, antigen processing, and the ability to orchestrate immune responses, KCs and recruited monocytes retain characteristic ontogeny markers and remain remarkably distinct on several functional aspects. While KCs dominate the hepatic macrophage pool in homeostasis (“sentinel function”), monocyte‐derived macrophages prevail in acute or chronic injury (“emergency response team”), making them an interesting target for novel therapeutic approaches in liver disease. In addition, recent data acquired by unbiased large‐scale techniques, such as single‐cell RNA sequencing, unraveled a previously unrecognized complexity of human and murine macrophage polarization abilities, far beyond the old dogma of inflammatory (M1) and anti‐inflammatory (M2) macrophages. Despite tremendous progress, numerous challenges remain in deciphering the full spectrum of macrophage activation and its implication in either promoting liver disease progression or repairing injured liver tissue. Being aware of such heterogeneity in cell origin and function is of crucial importance when studying liver diseases, developing novel therapeutic interventions, defining macrophage‐based prognostic biomarkers, or designing clinical trials. Growing knowledge in gene expression modulation and emerging technologies in drug delivery may soon allow shaping macrophage populations toward orchestrating beneficial rather than detrimental inflammatory responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrien Guillot
- Laboratory of Liver Diseases National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, National Institutes of Health Bethesda MD.,Department of Hepatology/Gastroenterology Charité University Medical Center Berlin Germany
| | - Frank Tacke
- Department of Hepatology/Gastroenterology Charité University Medical Center Berlin Germany
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10
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Lin Q, Deng D, Song X, Dai B, Yang X, Luo Q, Zhang Z. Self-Assembled "Off/On" Nanopomegranate for In Vivo Photoacoustic and Fluorescence Imaging: Strategic Arrangement of Kupffer Cells in Mouse Hepatic Lobules. ACS NANO 2019; 13:1526-1537. [PMID: 30716272 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.8b07283] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Kupffer cells (KCs), potent scavenger cells located in hepatic sinusoids, constantly phagocytize and degrade foreign materials to maintain metabolism and clearance. Understanding the strategic KC arrangement which links to their spatial location and function in hepatic lobules, the basic functional unit in the liver, is highly valuable for characterizing liver function. However, selectively labeling KCs and characterizing their function in vivo remains challenging. Herein, a fast self-assembled pomegranate structure-like nanoparticle with "nanopomegranate seeds" of dye aggregates has been developed, which has dual-modality "off/on" capability. This nanopomegranate shows good photostability, a high extinction coefficient, a high KC labeling efficiency (98.8%), and better visualization of KC morphology than commercial FluoSpheres. In vivo photoacoustic (PA) and fluorescence imaging consistently visualize that KCs are strategically distributed along the central vein (CV)-portal triad (PT) axis in each liver lobule: more and larger KCs exist in areas closer to the PTs. The high-resolution PA quantitative data further revealed that the density of KCs was linearly dependent on the r n/ rmax ratio (their relative location along the CV-PT axis) ( R2 = 0.7513), and the KC density at the outermost layer is almost 246-fold that at the innermost layer (each layer is 8 μm). Notably, the phagocytic ability of KCs located in layers with r n/ rmax ratios of 0.167-0.3 varies in a zigzag pattern, as evidenced by their different PA intensities. Additionally, the fluorescence imaging quantitation suggests similar fluorescence activation of nanopomegranate in KCs. Nanopomegranates combined with dual-modality imaging reveal the strategic arrangement of KCs in vivo, greatly extending our understanding of liver physiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiaoya Lin
- Britton Chance Center for Biomedical Photonics, Wuhan National Laboratory for Optoelectronics , Huazhong University of Science and Technology , Wuhan , Hubei 430074 , China
- MoE Key Laboratory for Biomedical Photonics, Collaborative Innovation Center for Biomedical Engineering, School of Engineering Sciences , Huazhong University of Science and Technology , Wuhan , Hubei , 430074 , China
| | - Deqiang Deng
- Britton Chance Center for Biomedical Photonics, Wuhan National Laboratory for Optoelectronics , Huazhong University of Science and Technology , Wuhan , Hubei 430074 , China
- MoE Key Laboratory for Biomedical Photonics, Collaborative Innovation Center for Biomedical Engineering, School of Engineering Sciences , Huazhong University of Science and Technology , Wuhan , Hubei , 430074 , China
| | - Xianlin Song
- Britton Chance Center for Biomedical Photonics, Wuhan National Laboratory for Optoelectronics , Huazhong University of Science and Technology , Wuhan , Hubei 430074 , China
- MoE Key Laboratory for Biomedical Photonics, Collaborative Innovation Center for Biomedical Engineering, School of Engineering Sciences , Huazhong University of Science and Technology , Wuhan , Hubei , 430074 , China
| | - Bolei Dai
- Britton Chance Center for Biomedical Photonics, Wuhan National Laboratory for Optoelectronics , Huazhong University of Science and Technology , Wuhan , Hubei 430074 , China
- MoE Key Laboratory for Biomedical Photonics, Collaborative Innovation Center for Biomedical Engineering, School of Engineering Sciences , Huazhong University of Science and Technology , Wuhan , Hubei , 430074 , China
| | - Xiaoquan Yang
- Britton Chance Center for Biomedical Photonics, Wuhan National Laboratory for Optoelectronics , Huazhong University of Science and Technology , Wuhan , Hubei 430074 , China
- MoE Key Laboratory for Biomedical Photonics, Collaborative Innovation Center for Biomedical Engineering, School of Engineering Sciences , Huazhong University of Science and Technology , Wuhan , Hubei , 430074 , China
| | - Qingming Luo
- Britton Chance Center for Biomedical Photonics, Wuhan National Laboratory for Optoelectronics , Huazhong University of Science and Technology , Wuhan , Hubei 430074 , China
- MoE Key Laboratory for Biomedical Photonics, Collaborative Innovation Center for Biomedical Engineering, School of Engineering Sciences , Huazhong University of Science and Technology , Wuhan , Hubei , 430074 , China
| | - Zhihong Zhang
- Britton Chance Center for Biomedical Photonics, Wuhan National Laboratory for Optoelectronics , Huazhong University of Science and Technology , Wuhan , Hubei 430074 , China
- MoE Key Laboratory for Biomedical Photonics, Collaborative Innovation Center for Biomedical Engineering, School of Engineering Sciences , Huazhong University of Science and Technology , Wuhan , Hubei , 430074 , China
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11
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Liepelt A, Wehr A, Kohlhepp M, Mossanen JC, Kreggenwinkel K, Denecke B, Costa IG, Luedde T, Trautwein C, Tacke F. CXCR6 protects from inflammation and fibrosis in NEMOLPC-KO mice. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis 2019; 1865:391-402. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbadis.2018.11.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2018] [Revised: 10/16/2018] [Accepted: 11/22/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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12
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Heymann F, von Trotha KT, Preisinger C, Lynen-Jansen P, Roeth AA, Geiger M, Geisler LJ, Frank AK, Conze J, Luedde T, Trautwein C, Binnebösel M, Neumann UP, Tacke F. Polypropylene mesh implantation for hernia repair causes myeloid cell-driven persistent inflammation. JCI Insight 2019; 4:123862. [PMID: 30674727 DOI: 10.1172/jci.insight.123862] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2018] [Accepted: 12/13/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Polypropylene meshes that are commonly used for inguinal hernia repair may trigger granulomatous foreign body reactions. Here, we show that asymptomatic patients display mesh-associated inflammatory granulomas long after surgery, which are dominated by monocyte-derived macrophages expressing high levels of inflammatory activation markers. In mice, mesh implantation by the onlay technique induced rapid and strong myeloid cell accumulation, without substantial attenuation for up to 90 days. Myeloid cells segregated into distinct macrophage subsets with separate spatial distribution, activation profiles, and functional properties, showing a stable inflammatory phenotype in the tissue surrounding the biomaterial and a mixed, wound-healing phenotype in the surrounding stromal tissue. Protein mass spectrometry confirmed the inflammatory nature of the foreign body reaction, as characterized by cytokines, complement activation, and matrix-modulating factors. Moreover, immunoglobulin deposition increased over time around the implant, arguing for humoral immune responses in association with the cell-driven inflammation. Intravital multiphoton microscopy revealed a high motility and continuous recruitment of myeloid cells, which is partly dependent on the chemokine receptor CCR2. CCR2-dependent macrophages are particular drivers of fibroblast proliferation. Thus, our work functionally characterizes myeloid cell-dependent inflammation following mesh implantation, thereby providing insights into the dynamics and mechanisms of foreign body reactions to implanted biomaterials.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Klaus-Thilo von Trotha
- Department of General, Visceral and Transplantation Surgery.,Department of Vascular Surgery, and
| | - Christian Preisinger
- Proteomics Core Facility Interdisciplinary Center for Clinical Research, University Hospital Aachen, Aachen, Germany
| | - Petra Lynen-Jansen
- Department of General, Visceral and Transplantation Surgery.,German Association for Gastroenterology, Berlin, Germany
| | - Anjali A Roeth
- Department of General, Visceral and Transplantation Surgery
| | | | | | | | - Joachim Conze
- Department of General, Visceral and Transplantation Surgery.,Hernienzentrum Dr. Conze, Munich, Germany
| | | | | | - Marcel Binnebösel
- Department of General, Visceral and Transplantation Surgery.,Department of Surgery, University Medical Center Maastricht, Maastricht, Netherlands
| | - Ulf P Neumann
- Department of General, Visceral and Transplantation Surgery.,Hernienzentrum Dr. Conze, Munich, Germany
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13
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Veres TZ. Visualizing immune responses of the airway mucosa. Cell Immunol 2018; 350:103865. [PMID: 30297084 DOI: 10.1016/j.cellimm.2018.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2018] [Revised: 05/03/2018] [Accepted: 10/01/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The airway mucosa is the primary tissue site exposed to inhaled particulate matter, which includes pathogens and allergens. While most inhaled particles are eliminated from the airways via mucociliary clearance, some pathogens may penetrate the mucosal epithelial barrier and an effective activation of the mucosal immune system is required to prevent further pathogen spread. Similarly, inhaled environmental allergens may induce an aberrant activation of immune cells in the airway mucosa, causing allergic airway disease. During the last years, several investigators employed advanced microscopic imaging on both intravital and tissue explant preparations to observe the dynamic behavior of various immune cells within their complex tissue environment. In the respiratory tract, most imaging studies focused on immune responses of the alveolar compartment in the lung periphery. However, equally important immunological events occur more proximally in the mucosa of the conducting airways, both during infection and allergic responses, calling for a more detailed imaging analysis also at this site. In this review, I will outline the technical challenges of designing microscopic imaging experiments in the conducting airways and summarize our recent efforts in understanding airway mucosal immune cell dynamics in steady-state conditions, during infection and allergy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tibor Z Veres
- Lymphocyte Biology Section, Laboratory of Immune System Biology, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, United States; MediCity Research Laboratory, University of Turku, Turku 20520, Finland.
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Ficht X, Thelen F, Stolp B, Stein JV. Preparation of Murine Submandibular Salivary Gland for Upright Intravital Microscopy. J Vis Exp 2018. [PMID: 29781999 DOI: 10.3791/57283] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The submandibular salivary gland (SMG) is one of the three major salivary glands, and is of interest for many different fields of biological research, including cell biology, oncology, dentistry, and immunology. The SMG is an exocrine gland comprised of secretory epithelial cells, myofibroblasts, endothelial cells, nerves, and extracellular matrix. Dynamic cellular processes in the rat and mouse SMG have previously been imaged, mostly using inverted multi-photon microscope systems. Here, we describe a straightforward protocol for the surgical preparation and stabilization of the murine SMG in anesthetized mice for in vivo imaging with upright multi-photon microscope systems. We present representative intravital image sets of endogenous and adoptively transferred fluorescent cells, including the labeling of blood vessels or salivary ducts and second harmonic generation to visualize fibrillar collagen. In sum, our protocol allows for surgical preparation of mouse salivary glands in upright microscopy systems, which are commonly used for intravital imaging in the field of immunology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xenia Ficht
- Theodor-Kocher Institute, University of Bern
| | | | - Bettina Stolp
- Theodor-Kocher Institute, University of Bern; Center for Infectious Diseases, Integrative Virology, University Clinic of Heidelberg
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15
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Park SA, Choe YH, Lee SH, Hyun YM. Two-photon Intravital Imaging of Leukocytes During the Immune Response in Lipopolysaccharide-treated Mouse Liver. J Vis Exp 2018. [PMID: 29443058 DOI: 10.3791/57191] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Sepsis is a type of severe infection that can cause organ failure and tissue damage. Although the mortality and morbidity rates associated with sepsis are extremely high, no direct treatment or organ-related mechanism has been examined in detail in real time. The liver is the key organ that manages toxins and infections in the human body. Herein, we aimed to perform intravital imaging of mouse liver after induction of endotoxemia in order to track the motility of immune cells, such as neutrophils and liver capsular macrophages (LCMs). Accordingly, we designed a novel surgical method for exposure of the liver with minimally invasive surgery. Mice were intraperitoneally injected with lipopolysaccharide (LPS), a common endotoxin. Using our novel surgical approach for exposure and intravital imaging of the mouse liver, we found that neutrophil recruitment in LPS-treated LysM-green fluorescent protein (GFP) mouse liver was increased compared with that in phosphate-buffered saline-treated liver. After LPS treatment, the number of neutrophils increased significantly with time. Additionally, using CX3Cr1-GFP mice, we successfully visualized liver resident macrophages called LCMs. Therefore, to investigate the efficacy of new reagents to control immune mobility in vivo, determining the motility and morphology of neutrophils and LCMs in the liver may allow us to identify therapeutic effect in organ failure and tissue damage caused by leukocytes activation in sepsis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sang A Park
- Department of Anatomy, Yonsei University College of Medicine; Brain Korea 21 Plus Project for Medical Science, Yonsei University College of Medicine
| | - Young Ho Choe
- Department of Anatomy, Yonsei University College of Medicine; Brain Korea 21 Plus Project for Medical Science, Yonsei University College of Medicine
| | - Sung Hwan Lee
- Department of Surgery, Yonsei University College of Medicine
| | - Young-Min Hyun
- Department of Anatomy, Yonsei University College of Medicine; Brain Korea 21 Plus Project for Medical Science, Yonsei University College of Medicine;
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Abstract
Macrophages represent a key cellular component of the liver, and are essential for maintaining tissue homeostasis and ensuring rapid responses to hepatic injury. Our understanding of liver macrophages has been revolutionized by the delineation of heterogeneous subsets of these cells. Kupffer cells are a self-sustaining, liver-resident population of macrophages and can be distinguished from the monocyte-derived macrophages that rapidly accumulate in the injured liver. Specific environmental signals further determine the polarization and function of hepatic macrophages. These cells promote the restoration of tissue integrity following liver injury or infection, but they can also contribute to the progression of liver diseases, including hepatitis, fibrosis and cancer. In this Review, we highlight novel findings regarding the origin, classification and function of hepatic macrophages, and we discuss their divergent roles in the healthy and diseased liver.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oliver Krenkel
- Department of Medicine III, University Hospital Aachen, D-52074 Aachen, Germany
| | - Frank Tacke
- Department of Medicine III, University Hospital Aachen, D-52074 Aachen, Germany
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17
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Mossanen JC, Krenkel O, Ergen C, Govaere O, Liepelt A, Puengel T, Heymann F, Kalthoff S, Lefebvre E, Eulberg D, Luedde T, Marx G, Strassburg CP, Roskams T, Trautwein C, Tacke F. Chemokine (C-C motif) receptor 2-positive monocytes aggravate the early phase of acetaminophen-induced acute liver injury. Hepatology 2016; 64:1667-1682. [PMID: 27302828 DOI: 10.1002/hep.28682] [Citation(s) in RCA: 230] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2016] [Revised: 05/09/2016] [Accepted: 05/25/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Acetaminophen (APAP, paracetamol) poisoning is a leading cause of acute liver failure (ALF) in humans and induces hepatocyte necrosis, followed by activation of the innate immune system, further aggravating liver injury. The role of infiltrating monocytes during the early phase of ALF is still ambiguous. Upon experimental APAP overdose in mice, monocyte-derived macrophages (MoMFs) massively accumulated in injured liver within 12-24 hours, whereas the number of tissue-resident macrophages (Kupffer cells) decreased. Influx of MoMFs is dependent on the chemokine receptor, chemokine (C-C motif) receptor 2 (CCR2), given that Ccr2-/- mice display reduced infiltration of monocytes and attenuated liver injury post-APAP overdose at early time points. As evidenced by intravital multiphoton microscopy of Ccr2 reporter mice, CCR2+ monocytes infiltrate liver as early as 8-12 hours post-APAP overdose and form dense cellular clusters around necrotic areas. CCR2+ MoMFs express a distinct pattern of inflammatory, but also repair-associated, genes in injured livers. Adoptive transfer experiments revealed that MoMFs primarily exert proinflammatory functions early post-APAP, thereby aggravating liver injury. Consequently, early pharmacological inhibition of either chemokine (C-C motif) ligand (CCL2; by the inhibitor, mNOX-E36) or CCR2 (by the orally available dual CCR2/CCR5 inhibitor, cenicriviroc) reduces monocyte infiltration and APAP-induced liver injury (AILI) in mice. Importantly, neither the early nor continuous inhibition of CCR2 hinder repair processes during resolution from injury. In line with this, human livers of ALF patients requiring liver transplantation reveal increased CD68+ hepatic macrophage numbers with massive infiltrates of periportal CCR2+ macrophages that display a proinflammatory polarization. CONCLUSION Infiltrating monocyte-derived macrophages aggravate APAP hepatotoxicity, and the pharmacological inhibition of either CCL2 or CCR2 might bear therapeutic potential by reducing the inflammatory reaction during the early phase of AILI. (Hepatology 2016;64:1667-1682).
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Affiliation(s)
- Jana C Mossanen
- Department of Medicine III, University Hospital Aachen, Aachen, Germany.,Department of Intensive and Intermediate Care, University Hospital Aachen, Aachen, Germany
| | - Oliver Krenkel
- Department of Medicine III, University Hospital Aachen, Aachen, Germany
| | - Can Ergen
- Department of Medicine III, University Hospital Aachen, Aachen, Germany
| | - Olivier Govaere
- Department of Imaging & Pathology, University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Anke Liepelt
- Department of Medicine III, University Hospital Aachen, Aachen, Germany
| | - Tobias Puengel
- Department of Medicine III, University Hospital Aachen, Aachen, Germany
| | - Felix Heymann
- Department of Medicine III, University Hospital Aachen, Aachen, Germany
| | - Sandra Kalthoff
- Department of Medicine I, University Hospital Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | | | | | - Tom Luedde
- Department of Medicine III, University Hospital Aachen, Aachen, Germany
| | - Gernot Marx
- Department of Intensive and Intermediate Care, University Hospital Aachen, Aachen, Germany
| | | | - Tania Roskams
- Department of Imaging & Pathology, University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | | | - Frank Tacke
- Department of Medicine III, University Hospital Aachen, Aachen, Germany.
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18
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Van Overmeire E, Stijlemans B, Heymann F, Keirsse J, Morias Y, Elkrim Y, Brys L, Abels C, Lahmar Q, Ergen C, Vereecke L, Tacke F, De Baetselier P, Van Ginderachter JA, Laoui D. M-CSF and GM-CSF Receptor Signaling Differentially Regulate Monocyte Maturation and Macrophage Polarization in the Tumor Microenvironment. Cancer Res 2015; 76:35-42. [PMID: 26573801 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-15-0869] [Citation(s) in RCA: 165] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2015] [Accepted: 10/10/2015] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Tumors contain a heterogeneous myeloid fraction comprised of discrete MHC-II(hi) and MHC-II(lo) tumor-associated macrophage (TAM) subpopulations that originate from Ly6C(hi) monocytes. However, the mechanisms regulating the abundance and phenotype of distinct TAM subsets remain unknown. Here, we investigated the role of macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF) in TAM differentiation and polarization in different mouse tumor models. We demonstrate that treatment of tumor-bearing mice with a blocking anti-M-CSFR monoclonal antibody resulted in a reduction of mature TAMs due to impaired recruitment, extravasation, proliferation, and maturation of their Ly6C(hi) monocytic precursors. M-CSFR signaling blockade shifted the MHC-II(lo)/MHC-II(hi) TAM balance in favor of the latter as observed by the preferential differentiation of Ly6C(hi) monocytes into MHC-II(hi) TAMs. In addition, the genetic and functional signatures of MHC-II(lo) TAMs were downregulated upon M-CSFR blockade, indicating that M-CSFR signaling shapes the MHC-II(lo) TAM phenotype. Conversely, granulocyte macrophage (GM)-CSFR had no effect on the mononuclear tumor infiltrate or relative abundance of TAM subsets. However, GM-CSFR signaling played an important role in fine-tuning the MHC-II(hi) phenotype. Overall, our data uncover the multifaceted and opposing roles of M-CSFR and GM-CSFR signaling in governing the phenotype of macrophage subsets in tumors, and provide new insight into the mechanism of action underlying M-CSFR blockade.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva Van Overmeire
- Laboratory of Myeloid Cell Immunology, VIB, Brussels, Belgium. Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Benoît Stijlemans
- Laboratory of Myeloid Cell Immunology, VIB, Brussels, Belgium. Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Felix Heymann
- Department of Medicine III, RWTH University-Hospital Aachen, Aachen, Germany
| | - Jiri Keirsse
- Laboratory of Myeloid Cell Immunology, VIB, Brussels, Belgium. Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Yannick Morias
- Laboratory of Myeloid Cell Immunology, VIB, Brussels, Belgium. Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Yvon Elkrim
- Laboratory of Myeloid Cell Immunology, VIB, Brussels, Belgium. Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Lea Brys
- Laboratory of Myeloid Cell Immunology, VIB, Brussels, Belgium. Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Chloé Abels
- Laboratory of Myeloid Cell Immunology, VIB, Brussels, Belgium. Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Qods Lahmar
- Laboratory of Myeloid Cell Immunology, VIB, Brussels, Belgium. Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Can Ergen
- Department of Medicine III, RWTH University-Hospital Aachen, Aachen, Germany
| | - Lars Vereecke
- Unit of Molecular Signal Transduction in Inflammation, Inflammation Research Center, VIB, Ghent, Belgium. Department of Biomedical Molecular Biology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Frank Tacke
- Department of Medicine III, RWTH University-Hospital Aachen, Aachen, Germany
| | - Patrick De Baetselier
- Laboratory of Myeloid Cell Immunology, VIB, Brussels, Belgium. Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Jo A Van Ginderachter
- Laboratory of Myeloid Cell Immunology, VIB, Brussels, Belgium. Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium.
| | - Damya Laoui
- Laboratory of Myeloid Cell Immunology, VIB, Brussels, Belgium. Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
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19
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Marques PE, Oliveira AG, Chang L, Paula-Neto HA, Menezes GB. Understanding liver immunology using intravital microscopy. J Hepatol 2015; 63:733-42. [PMID: 26055800 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhep.2015.05.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2015] [Revised: 05/21/2015] [Accepted: 05/21/2015] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The liver has come a long way since it was considered only a metabolic organ attached to the gastrointestinal tract. The simultaneous ascension of immunology and intravital microscopy evidenced the liver as a central axis in the immune system, controlling immune responses to local and systemic agents as well as disease tolerance. The multiple hepatic cell populations are organized in a vascular environment that promotes intimate cellular interactions, including initiation of innate and adaptive immune responses, rapid leukocyte recruitment, pathogen clearance and production of a variety of immune mediators. In this review, we focus on the advances in liver immunology supported by intravital microscopy in diseases such as isquemia/reperfusion, acute liver injury and infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pedro Elias Marques
- Laboratório de Imunobiofotônica, Departamento de Morfologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - André Gustavo Oliveira
- Laboratório de Imunobiofotônica, Departamento de Morfologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | | | - Heitor Affonso Paula-Neto
- Departamento de Biotecnologia Farmacêutica, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Gustavo Batista Menezes
- Laboratório de Imunobiofotônica, Departamento de Morfologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Brazil.
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