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Li Z, Chen L, Zhang D, Huang X, Yang J, Li W, Wang C, Meng X, Huang G. Intranasal 15d-PGJ2 inhibits the growth of rat lactotroph pituitary neuroendocrine tumors by inducing PPARγ-dependent apoptotic and autophagic cell death. Front Neurosci 2023; 17:1109675. [PMID: 37250410 PMCID: PMC10213263 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2023.1109675] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2022] [Accepted: 04/21/2023] [Indexed: 05/31/2023] Open
Abstract
PPARγ agonists have been reported to induce cell death in pituitary neuroendocrine tumor (PitNET) cell cultures. However, the therapeutic effects of PPARγ agonists in vivo remain unclear. In the present study, we found that intranasal 15d-PGJ2, an endogenous PPARγ agonist, resulted in growth suppression of Fischer 344 rat lactotroph PitNETs induced by subcutaneous implantation with a mini-osmotic pump containing estradiol. Intranasal 15d-PGJ2 reduced the volume and weight of the pituitary gland and the level of serum prolactin (PRL) in rat lactotroph PitNETs. 15d-PGJ2 treatment attenuated pathological changes and significantly decreased the ratio of PRL/pituitary-specific transcription factor 1 (Pit-1) and estrogen receptor α (ERα)/Pit-1 double-positive cells. Moreover, 15d-PGJ2 treatment induced apoptosis in the pituitary gland characterized by an increased ratio of TUNEL-positive cells, cleavage of caspase-3, and elevated activity of caspase-3. 15d-PGJ2 treatment decreased the levels of cytokines, including TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6. Furthermore, 15d-PGJ2 treatment markedly increased the protein expression of PPARγ and blocked autophagic flux, as evidenced by the accumulation of LC3-II and SQSTM1/p62 and the decrease in LAMP-1 expression. Importantly, all these effects mediated by 15d-PGJ2 were abolished by cotreatment with the PPARγ antagonist GW9662. In conclusion, intranasal 15d-PGJ2 suppressed the growth of rat lactotroph PitNETs by inducing PPARγ-dependent apoptotic and autophagic cell death. Therefore, 15d-PGJ2 may be a potential new drug for lactotroph PitNETs.
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2
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Si L, Lai T, Zhao J, Jin Y, Qi M, Li M, Fu H, Shi X, Ma L, Guo R. Identification of a novel pyridine derivative with inhibitory activity against ovarian cancer progression in vivo and in vitro. Front Pharmacol 2022; 13:1064485. [DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2022.1064485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2022] [Accepted: 10/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Ovarian cancer is the second leading cause of death of female gynecological malignant tumor patients worldwide. Although surgery and chemotherapy have achieved dramatic achievement, the mortality remains high, resulting in the demand for new specific drug discovery. Disrupting ovarian cancer growth via histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibition is a strategy for cancer therapy or prevention. In this work, we synthesized a novel pyridine derivative named compound H42 and investigated its anti-cancer activity in vivo and in vitro. We found that compound H42 inhibited ovarian cancer cell proliferation with IC50 values of 0.87 μM (SKOV3) and 5.4 μM (A2780). Further studies confirmed that compound H42 induced apoptosis, intracellular ROS production, and DNA damage. Moreover, compound H42 downregulated the expression of histone deacetylase 6 (HDAC6) with a distinct increase in the acetylation of α-tubulin and heat shock protein 90 (HSP90), followed by the degradation of cyclin D1, resulting in cell cycle arrest at the G0/G1 phase. Importantly, ectopic expression of HDAC6 induced deacetylation of HSP90 and α-tubulin, while HDAC6 knockdown upregulated the acetylation of HSP90 and α-tubulin. However, in the nude xenograft mouse study, compound H42 treatment can inhibit ovarian cancer growth without obvious toxicity. These findings indicated that compound H42 inhibited ovarian cancer cell proliferation through inducing cell cycle arrest at the G0/G1 phase via regulating HDAC6-mediated acetylation, suggesting compound H42 could serve as a lead compound for further development of ovarian cancer therapeutic agents.
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3
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Pramanik SD, Kumar Halder A, Mukherjee U, Kumar D, Dey YN, R M. Potential of histone deacetylase inhibitors in the control and regulation of prostate, breast and ovarian cancer. Front Chem 2022; 10:948217. [PMID: 36034650 PMCID: PMC9411967 DOI: 10.3389/fchem.2022.948217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2022] [Accepted: 06/27/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Histone deacetylases (HDACs) are enzymes that play a role in chromatin remodeling and epigenetics. They belong to a specific category of enzymes that eliminate the acetyl part of the histones’ -N-acetyl lysine, causing the histones to be wrapped compactly around DNA. Numerous biological processes rely on HDACs, including cell proliferation and differentiation, angiogenesis, metastasis, gene regulation, and transcription. Epigenetic changes, specifically increased expression and activity of HDACs, are commonly detected in cancer. As a result, HDACi could be used to develop anticancer drugs. Although preclinical outcomes with HDACs as monotherapy have been promising clinical trials have had mixed results and limited success. In both preclinical and clinical trials, however, combination therapy with different anticancer medicines has proved to have synergistic effects. Furthermore, these combinations improved efficacy, decreased tumor resistance to therapy, and decreased toxicity. In the present review, the detailed modes of action, classification of HDACs, and their correlation with different cancers like prostate, breast, and ovarian cancer were discussed. Further, the different cell signaling pathways and the structure-activity relationship and pharmaco-toxicological properties of the HDACi, and their synergistic effects with other anticancer drugs observed in recent preclinical and clinical studies used in combination therapy were discussed for prostate, breast, and ovarian cancer treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siddhartha Das Pramanik
- Department of Pharmaceutical Engineering and Technology, IIT-BHU, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Amit Kumar Halder
- Dr. B.C. Roy College of Pharmacy and Allied Health Sciences, Durgapur, West Bengal, India
| | - Ushmita Mukherjee
- Dr. B.C. Roy College of Pharmacy and Allied Health Sciences, Durgapur, West Bengal, India
| | - Dharmendra Kumar
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Narayan Institute of Pharmacy, Gopal Narayan Singh University, Sasaram, Bihar, India
| | - Yadu Nandan Dey
- Dr. B.C. Roy College of Pharmacy and Allied Health Sciences, Durgapur, West Bengal, India
- *Correspondence: Yadu Nandan Dey, ; Mogana R,
| | - Mogana R
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, UCSI Education SDN.BHD., Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
- *Correspondence: Yadu Nandan Dey, ; Mogana R,
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4
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Yang CB, Liu J, Tong BCK, Wang ZY, Zhu Z, Su CF, Sreenivasmurthy SG, Wu JX, Iyaswamy A, Krishnamoorthi S, Huang SY, Cheung KH, Song JX, Tan JQ, Lu JH, Li M. TFEB, a master regulator of autophagy and biogenesis, unexpectedly promotes apoptosis in response to the cyclopentenone prostaglandin 15d-PGJ2. Acta Pharmacol Sin 2022; 43:1251-1263. [PMID: 34417577 PMCID: PMC9061728 DOI: 10.1038/s41401-021-00711-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2020] [Accepted: 06/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Transcriptional factor EB (TFEB), a master regulator of autophagy and lysosomal biogenesis, is generally regarded as a pro-survival factor. Here, we identify that besides its effect on autophagy induction, TFEB exerts a pro-apoptotic effect in response to the cyclopentenone prostaglandin 15-deoxy-∆-12,14-prostaglandin J2 (15d-PGJ2). Specifically, 15d-PGJ2 promotes TFEB translocation from the cytoplasm into the nucleus to induce autophagy and lysosome biogenesis via reactive oxygen species (ROS) production rather than mTORC1 inactivation. Surprisingly, TFEB promotes rather than inhibits apoptosis in response to 15d-PGJ2. Mechanistically, ROS-mediated TFEB translocation into the nucleus transcriptionally upregulates the expression of ATF4, which is required for apoptosis elicited by 15d-PGJ2. Additionally, inhibition of TFEB activation by ROS scavenger N-acetyl cysteine or inhibition of protein synthesis by cycloheximide effectively compromises ATF4 upregulation and apoptosis in response to 15d-PGJ2. Collectively, these results indicate that ROS-induced TFEB activation exerts a novel role in promoting apoptosis besides its role in regulating autophagy in response to 15d-PGJ2. This work not only evidences how TFEB is activated by 15d-PGJ2, but also unveils a previously unexplored role of ROS-dependent activation of TFEB in modulating cell apoptosis in response to 15d-PGJ2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chuan-bin Yang
- grid.263817.90000 0004 1773 1790Department of Geriatrics, Shenzhen People’s Hospital, (The Second Clinical Medical College, Jinan University; The First Affiliated Hospital, Southern University of Science and Technology), Shenzhen, 518020 China ,grid.221309.b0000 0004 1764 5980Mr. and Mrs. Ko Chi Ming Centre for Parkinson’s Disease Research, School of Chinese Medicine, Hong Kong Baptist University, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Jia Liu
- grid.221309.b0000 0004 1764 5980Mr. and Mrs. Ko Chi Ming Centre for Parkinson’s Disease Research, School of Chinese Medicine, Hong Kong Baptist University, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Benjamin Chun-Kit Tong
- grid.221309.b0000 0004 1764 5980Mr. and Mrs. Ko Chi Ming Centre for Parkinson’s Disease Research, School of Chinese Medicine, Hong Kong Baptist University, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Zi-ying Wang
- grid.221309.b0000 0004 1764 5980Mr. and Mrs. Ko Chi Ming Centre for Parkinson’s Disease Research, School of Chinese Medicine, Hong Kong Baptist University, Hong Kong SAR, China ,grid.258164.c0000 0004 1790 3548Interdisciplinary Institute for Personalized Medicine in Brain Disorders, Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510632 China
| | - Zhou Zhu
- grid.221309.b0000 0004 1764 5980Mr. and Mrs. Ko Chi Ming Centre for Parkinson’s Disease Research, School of Chinese Medicine, Hong Kong Baptist University, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Cheng-fu Su
- grid.221309.b0000 0004 1764 5980Mr. and Mrs. Ko Chi Ming Centre for Parkinson’s Disease Research, School of Chinese Medicine, Hong Kong Baptist University, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Sravan Gopalkrishnashetty Sreenivasmurthy
- grid.221309.b0000 0004 1764 5980Mr. and Mrs. Ko Chi Ming Centre for Parkinson’s Disease Research, School of Chinese Medicine, Hong Kong Baptist University, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Jia-xi Wu
- grid.221309.b0000 0004 1764 5980Mr. and Mrs. Ko Chi Ming Centre for Parkinson’s Disease Research, School of Chinese Medicine, Hong Kong Baptist University, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Ashok Iyaswamy
- grid.221309.b0000 0004 1764 5980Mr. and Mrs. Ko Chi Ming Centre for Parkinson’s Disease Research, School of Chinese Medicine, Hong Kong Baptist University, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Senthilkumar Krishnamoorthi
- grid.221309.b0000 0004 1764 5980Mr. and Mrs. Ko Chi Ming Centre for Parkinson’s Disease Research, School of Chinese Medicine, Hong Kong Baptist University, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Shi-ying Huang
- grid.263817.90000 0004 1773 1790Department of Geriatrics, Shenzhen People’s Hospital, (The Second Clinical Medical College, Jinan University; The First Affiliated Hospital, Southern University of Science and Technology), Shenzhen, 518020 China
| | - King-ho Cheung
- grid.221309.b0000 0004 1764 5980Mr. and Mrs. Ko Chi Ming Centre for Parkinson’s Disease Research, School of Chinese Medicine, Hong Kong Baptist University, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Ju-xian Song
- grid.221309.b0000 0004 1764 5980Mr. and Mrs. Ko Chi Ming Centre for Parkinson’s Disease Research, School of Chinese Medicine, Hong Kong Baptist University, Hong Kong SAR, China ,grid.411866.c0000 0000 8848 7685Medical College of Acupuncture-Moxibustion and Rehabilitation, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, 510006 China
| | - Jie-qiong Tan
- grid.216417.70000 0001 0379 7164Center for Medical Genetics and Hunan Key Laboratory of Animal Model for Human Diseases, School of Life Sciences, Central South University, Changsha, 410006 China
| | - Jia-hong Lu
- grid.437123.00000 0004 1794 8068State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Institute of Chinese Medical Sciences, University of Macau, Macau SAR, China
| | - Min Li
- Mr. and Mrs. Ko Chi Ming Centre for Parkinson's Disease Research, School of Chinese Medicine, Hong Kong Baptist University, Hong Kong SAR, China.
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5
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Lee BR, Paing MH, Sharma-Walia N. Cyclopentenone Prostaglandins: Biologically Active Lipid Mediators Targeting Inflammation. Front Physiol 2021; 12:640374. [PMID: 34335286 PMCID: PMC8320392 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2021.640374] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2020] [Accepted: 05/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Cyclopentenone prostaglandins (cyPGs) are biologically active lipid mediators, including PGA2, PGA1, PGJ2, and its metabolites. cyPGs are essential regulators of inflammation, cell proliferation, apoptosis, angiogenesis, cell migration, and stem cell activity. cyPGs biologically act on multiple cellular targets, including transcription factors and signal transduction pathways. cyPGs regulate the inflammatory response by interfering with NF-κB, AP-1, MAPK, and JAK/STAT signaling pathways via both a group of nuclear receptor peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma (PPAR-γ) dependent and PPAR-γ independent mechanisms. cyPGs promote the resolution of chronic inflammation associated with cancers and pathogen (bacterial, viral, and parasitic) infection. cyPGs exhibit potent effects on viral infections by repressing viral protein synthesis, altering viral protein glycosylation, inhibiting virus transmission, and reducing virus-induced inflammation. We summarize their anti-proliferative, pro-apoptotic, cytoprotective, antioxidant, anti-angiogenic, anti-inflammatory, pro-resolution, and anti-metastatic potential. These properties render them unique therapeutic value, especially in resolving inflammation and could be used in adjunct with other existing therapies. We also discuss other α, β -unsaturated carbonyl lipids and cyPGs like isoprostanes (IsoPs) compounds.
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6
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Chen J, Chen H, Pan L. SIRT1 and gynecological malignancies (Review). Oncol Rep 2021; 45:43. [PMID: 33649834 PMCID: PMC7934219 DOI: 10.3892/or.2021.7994] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2020] [Accepted: 01/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Sirtuin 1 (SIRT1), a member of the sirtuin protein family, is a nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+)-dependent type III histone deacetylase and mono-ADP-ribosyltransferase. SIRT1 can deacetylate histones (H1, H3, and H4) and non-histone proteins, and it is widely involved in various physiological and pathological processes in the body, including metabolism, aging, transcription, DNA damage and repair, apoptosis, cell cycle regulation, inflammation and cancer. Research has shown that SIRT1 is involved in tumorigenesis, tumor metastasis and chemotherapy resistance, but it exerts opposing effects and plays different roles in different pathogenic processes. Recent studies have demonstrated that SIRT1 may be implicated in the pathogenesis, development, treatment and prognosis of tumors; however, its role in gynecological tumors remains elusive. The aim of the present review was to summarize the pathogenic roles of SIRT1 in cancer, and to provide what is, to the best of our knowledge, the first review of recent advances involving SIRT1 in cervical cancer, endometrial cancer (EC) and ovarian cancer (OC). In addition, the critical research gaps regarding SIRT1, particularly its potential involvement in the concurrence of EC and cervical cancer and its antagonistic effect against poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase inhibitors in OC, were highlighted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiayu Chen
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100730, P.R. China
| | - Houzao Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Biology, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100730, P.R. China
| | - Lingya Pan
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100730, P.R. China
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7
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Lu B, Zhang D, Wang X, Lin D, Chen Y, Xu X. Targeting SIRT1 to inhibit the proliferation of multiple myeloma cells. Oncol Lett 2021; 21:306. [PMID: 33732382 PMCID: PMC7905587 DOI: 10.3892/ol.2021.12567] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2020] [Accepted: 12/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Multiple myeloma (MM) is the second most common hematopoietic malignancy and remains an incurable disease. Thus, novel drugs and therapeutic methods are required for patients with MM. The present study aimed to investigate the effect of sirtuin 1 (SIRT1) inhibitor cambinol on the proliferation and apoptosis of myeloma cell lines, RPMI8226 and U266. Moreover, the present study evaluated the underlying molecular mechanisms of proliferation inhibition and apoptosis induced by cambinol. A Cell Counting Kit-8 assay was used to measure the viability of RPMI8226 and U266 cells treated with cambinol. Apoptosis and the cell cycle were analyzed via flow cytometry. The expression levels of caspase-3, poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase 1 (PARP), p53, acetylated p53 (Ac-p53), Bcl-2, cyclin D1 and p21 were detected in cells treated with cambinol using western blot analysis. The results demonstrated that cambinol inhibited the proliferation of RPMI8226 and U266 cells in a time- and dose-dependent manner. Increased apoptosis and G1 cell cycle arrest, together with enhanced procaspase-3 degradation and PARP cleavage were identified in cambinol-treated cells compared with controls. Western blotting results also revealed the upregulation of p53 acetylation and p21, as well as the downregulation of Bcl-2 and cyclin D1 in cells treated with cambinol. In conclusion, the present results suggest that cambinol inhibits the proliferation and induces apoptosis in RPMI8226 and U266 cells by regulating acetylation of p53 via the targeting of SIRT1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bo Lu
- Department of Hematology, The Seventh Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-Sen University, Shenzhen, Guangdong 518107, P.R. China
| | - Dengyang Zhang
- Department of Hematology, The Seventh Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-Sen University, Shenzhen, Guangdong 518107, P.R. China
| | - Xiaobo Wang
- Department of Hematology, The Seventh Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-Sen University, Shenzhen, Guangdong 518107, P.R. China
| | - Dongjun Lin
- Department of Hematology, The Seventh Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-Sen University, Shenzhen, Guangdong 518107, P.R. China
| | - Yun Chen
- Department of Hematology, The Seventh Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-Sen University, Shenzhen, Guangdong 518107, P.R. China
| | - Xiaojun Xu
- Department of Hematology, The Seventh Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-Sen University, Shenzhen, Guangdong 518107, P.R. China
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8
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Singh M, Srivastava M, Wakode SR, Asthana S. Elucidation of Structural Determinants Delineates the Residues Playing Key Roles in Differential Dynamics and Selective Inhibition of Sirt1-3. J Chem Inf Model 2021; 61:1105-1124. [PMID: 33606530 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jcim.0c01193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Sirt1-3 are the most studied sirtuins, playing a key role in caloric-dependent epigenetic modifications. Since they are localized in distinct cellular compartments and act differently under various pathological conditions, selective inhibition would be a promising strategy to understand their biological function and to discover effective therapeutics. Here, sirtuin's inhibitor Ex527* is used as a probe to speculate the possible root cause of selective inhibition and differential structural dynamics of Sirt1-3. Comparative energetics and mutational studies revealed the criticality of residues I279 and I316 for the Sirt1 selectivity toward Ex527*. Furthermore, essential dynamics and residue network analysis revealed that the side-chain reorientation in residue F190 due to nonconserved residue Y191 played a major role in the formation of an extended selectivity pocket in Sirt2. These changes at the dynamical and residual level, which impact the internal wiring significantly, might help in rationally designing selective inhibitors against Sirt1-3.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mrityunjay Singh
- Translational Health Science and Technology Institute (THSTI), Faridabad, Haryana 121001, India.,Delhi Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Research, DPSRU, M.B. Road, Pushp Vihar, Sector 3, New Delhi 110017, India
| | - Mitul Srivastava
- Translational Health Science and Technology Institute (THSTI), Faridabad, Haryana 121001, India
| | - Sharad R Wakode
- Delhi Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Research, DPSRU, M.B. Road, Pushp Vihar, Sector 3, New Delhi 110017, India
| | - Shailendra Asthana
- Translational Health Science and Technology Institute (THSTI), Faridabad, Haryana 121001, India
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9
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Biological Evaluation of Oxindole Derivative as a Novel Anticancer Agent against Human Kidney Carcinoma Cells. Biomolecules 2020; 10:biom10091260. [PMID: 32878322 PMCID: PMC7565513 DOI: 10.3390/biom10091260] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2020] [Revised: 08/19/2020] [Accepted: 08/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Renal cell carcinoma has emerged as one of the leading causes of cancer-related deaths in the USA. Here, we examined the anticancer profile of oxindole derivatives (SH-859) in human renal cancer cells. Targeting 786-O cells by SH-859 inhibited cell growth and affected the protein kinase B/mechanistic target of rapamycin 1 pathway, which in turn downregulated the expression of glycolytic enzymes, including lactate dehydrogenase A and glucose transporter-1, as well as other signaling proteins. Treatment with SH-859 altered glycolysis, mitochondrial function, and levels of adenosine triphosphate and cellular metabolites. Flow cytometry revealed the induction of apoptosis and G0/G1 cell cycle arrest in renal cancer cells following SH-859 treatment. Induction of autophagy was also confirmed after SH-859 treatment by acridine orange and monodansylcadaverine staining, immunocytochemistry, and Western blot analyses. Finally, SH-859 also inhibited the tumor development in a xenograft model. Thus, SH-859 can serve as a potential molecule for the treatment of human renal carcinoma.
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10
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Smith PG, Roque D, Ching MM, Fulton A, Rao G, Reader JC. The Role of Eicosanoids in Gynecological Malignancies. Front Pharmacol 2020; 11:1233. [PMID: 32982722 PMCID: PMC7479818 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2020.01233] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2020] [Accepted: 07/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Eicosanoids, bio-active lipid molecules, evoke a multitude of biological effects that directly affect cancer cells and indirectly affect tumor microenvironment. An emerging role has been shown for eicosanoids in the pathogenesis of gynecological malignancies which include cancers of the vulva, vagina, cervix, uterine, and ovary. Eicosanoid biosynthesis pathways start at the metabolism of phospholipids by phospholipase A2 then proceeding to one of three pathways: the cyclooxygenase (COX), lipoxygenase (LOX), or P450 epoxygenase pathways. The most studied eicosanoid pathways include COX and LOX; however, more evidence is appearing to support further study of the P450 epoxygenase pathway in gynecologic cancers. In this review, we present the current knowledge of the role of COX, LOX and P450 pathways in the pathogenesis of gynecologic malignancies. Vulvar and vaginal cancer, the rarest subtypes, there is association of COX-2 expression with poor disease specific survival in vulvar cancer and, in vaginal cancer, COX-2 expression has been found to play a role in mucosal inflammation leading to disease susceptibility and transmission. Cervical cancer is associated with COX-2 levels 7.4 times higher than in healthy tissues. Additionally, HPV elevates COX-2 levels through the EGFR pathway and HIV promotes elevated COX-2 levels in cervical tissue as well as increases PGE2 levels eliciting inflammation and progression of cancer. Evidence supports significant roles for both the LOX and COX pathways in uterine cancer. In endometrial cancer, there is increased expression of 5-LOX which is associated with adverse outcomes. Prostanoids in the COX pathway PGE2 and PGF2α have been shown to play a significant role in uterine cancer including alteration of proliferation, adhesion, migration, invasion, angiogenesis, and the inflammatory microenvironment. The most studied gynecological malignancy in regard to the potential role of eicosanoids in tumorigenesis is ovarian cancer in which all three pathways have shown to be associated or play a role in ovarian tumorigenesis directly on the tumor cell or through modulation of the tumor microenvironment. By identifying the gaps in knowledge, additional pathways and targets could be identified in order to obtain a better understanding of eicosanoid signaling in gynecological malignancies and identify potential new therapeutic approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paige G. Smith
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproductive Medicine, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Dana Roque
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproductive Medicine, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States
- Marlene and Stewart Greenebaum Comprehensive Cancer Center, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Mc Millan Ching
- Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Amy Fulton
- Marlene and Stewart Greenebaum Comprehensive Cancer Center, Baltimore, MD, United States
- Department of Pathology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States
- Baltimore Veterans Administration Medical Center, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Gautam Rao
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproductive Medicine, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States
- Marlene and Stewart Greenebaum Comprehensive Cancer Center, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Jocelyn C. Reader
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproductive Medicine, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States
- Marlene and Stewart Greenebaum Comprehensive Cancer Center, Baltimore, MD, United States
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11
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Na HK, Yang H, Surh YJ. 15-Deoxy-Δ 12,14-prostaglandin J 2 Induces Apoptosis in Ha- ras-transformed Human Breast Epithelial Cells by Targeting IκB kinase-NF-κB Signaling. J Cancer Prev 2020; 25:100-110. [PMID: 32647651 PMCID: PMC7337001 DOI: 10.15430/jcp.2020.25.2.100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2020] [Revised: 06/24/2020] [Accepted: 06/24/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
15-Deoxy-Δ12,14-prostaglandin J2
(15d-PGJ2), an endogenous ligand for PPARγ, has differential
effects on cancer cell proliferation and survival depending on the dose and the
type of cells. In the present study, we have investigated the effects of
15d-PGJ2 on apoptosis of the Ha-ras transformed
human breast epithelial (MCF10A-ras) cells. When
MCF10A-ras cells were treated with 15d-PGJ2 (10
μM) for 24 hours, they underwent apoptosis as evidenced by characteristic
morphological features, an increased proportion of
sub-G0/G1 cell population, a typical pattern of
annexin V/propidium iodide staining, perturbation of mitochondrial transmembrane
potential (Δψm), and cleavage of caspase-3 and its
substrate PARP. A pan-caspase inhibitor, Z-Val-Ala-Asp
(OCH3)-fluoromethyl ketone attenuated cytotoxicity and proteolytic
cleavage of caspase-3 induced by 15d-PGJ2. The
15d-PGJ2-induced apoptosis was accompanied by enhanced intracellular
accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which was abolished by the
antioxidant N-acetyl-L-cysteine (NAC). 15d-PGJ2
inhibited the DNA binding activity of NF-κB which was associated with
inhibition of expression and catalytic activity of IκB kinase β
(IKKβ). 15d-PGJ2-mediated inhibition of IKKβ and nuclear
translocation of phospho-p65 was blocked by NAC treatment.
9,10-Dihydro-PGJ2, a non-electrophilic analogue of
15d-PGJ2, failed to produce ROS, to inhibit NF-κB DNA
binding, and to induce apoptosis, suggesting that the electrophilic
α,β-unsaturated carbonyl group of 15d-PGJ2 is essential for
its pro-apoptotic activity. 15d-PGJ2-induced inactivation of
IKKβ was also attributable to its covalent thiol modification at the
cysteine 179 residue of IKKβ. Based on these findings, we propose that
15d-PGJ2 inactivates IKKβ–ΝF-κB signaling
through oxidative or covalent modification of IKKβ, thereby inducing
apoptosis in Ha-ras transformed human breast epithelial
cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hye-Kyung Na
- Department of Food Science and Biotechnology, College of Knowledge-Based Services Engineering, Sungshin Women's University, Seoul, Korea.,Department of Future Applied Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Sungshin Women's University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Hongkyung Yang
- Department of Future Applied Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Sungshin Women's University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Young-Joon Surh
- Tumor Microenvironment Global Core Research Center, College of Pharmacy, Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea
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12
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Tae IH, Son JY, Lee SH, Ahn MY, Yoon K, Yoon S, Moon HR, Kim HS. A new SIRT1 inhibitor, MHY2245, induces autophagy and inhibits energy metabolism via PKM2/mTOR pathway in human ovarian cancer cells. Int J Biol Sci 2020; 16:1901-1916. [PMID: 32398958 PMCID: PMC7211172 DOI: 10.7150/ijbs.44343] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2020] [Accepted: 03/19/2020] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Ovarian cancer is a common gynecological cancer that is found worldwide. Class III histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitors, a new class of anticancer agents, induce autophagy in various human cancer cells. The aim of the present study was to investigate the antitumor activity of MHY2245, a new synthetic SIRT inhibitor, on human ovarian cancer cells. We found that MHY2245 exhibited potent cytotoxicity to SKOV3 cells in a time- and concentration-dependent manner. The cytotoxicity of MHY2245 (IC50=0.32 µM) was higher than that of doxorubicin (DOX, IC50=1.38µM) against SKOV3 cells. MHY2245 significantly inhibited SIRT1 enzyme activity, reduced the expression of SIRT1, increased cell cycle arrest at G2/M phase, and induced apoptotic cell death in SKOV3 cells via expression of cytochrome c, cleaved-PARP, cleaved caspase-3, and Bax. This might be associated with blocking of the pyruvate kinase M2 (PKM2)/mTOR pathway. MHY2245 also inhibited tumor growth and reduced tumor size when SKOV3 cells were transplanted into nude mice. Our results indicate that MHY2245 exerts antitumor activity against ovarian cancer cells by blocking the PKM2/mTOR pathway. We suggest that MHY2245 is a promising anticancer agent that disrupts ovarian cancer cell metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- In Hwan Tae
- School of Pharmacy, Sungkyunkwan University, 2066, Seobu-ro, Suwon 16419, Republic of Korea
| | - Ji Yeon Son
- School of Pharmacy, Sungkyunkwan University, 2066, Seobu-ro, Suwon 16419, Republic of Korea
| | - Su Hyun Lee
- School of Pharmacy, Sungkyunkwan University, 2066, Seobu-ro, Suwon 16419, Republic of Korea
| | - Mi-Young Ahn
- Major in Pharmaceutical Engineering, Division of Bio-industry, College of Medical and Life Sciences, Silla University, Busan 46958, Republic of Korea
| | - Kyungsil Yoon
- Comparative Biomedicine Research Branch, Division of Translational Science, National Cancer Center, 323 Ilsandong-gu, Goyang-si, Gyeonggi-do, 10408, Republic of Korea
| | - Sungpil Yoon
- School of Pharmacy, Sungkyunkwan University, 2066, Seobu-ro, Suwon 16419, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyung Ryong Moon
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busandaehak-ro 63, Geumjeong-gu, Busan 46241, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyung Sik Kim
- School of Pharmacy, Sungkyunkwan University, 2066, Seobu-ro, Suwon 16419, Republic of Korea
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13
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Epigenetic Control of Autophagy in Cancer Cells: A Key Process for Cancer-Related Phenotypes. Cells 2019; 8:cells8121656. [PMID: 31861179 PMCID: PMC6952790 DOI: 10.3390/cells8121656] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2019] [Revised: 11/19/2019] [Accepted: 12/13/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Although autophagy is a well-known and extensively described cell pathway, numerous studies have been recently interested in studying the importance of its regulation at different molecular levels, including the translational and post-translational levels. Therefore, this review focuses on the links between autophagy and epigenetics in cancer and summarizes the. following: (i) how ATG genes are regulated by epigenetics, including DNA methylation and post-translational histone modifications; (ii) how epidrugs are able to modulate autophagy in cancer and to alter cancer-related phenotypes (proliferation, migration, invasion, tumorigenesis, etc.) and; (iii) how epigenetic enzymes can also regulate autophagy at the protein level. One noteable observation was that researchers most often reported conclusions about the regulation of the autophagy flux, following the use of epidrugs, based only on the analysis of LC3B-II form in treated cells. However, it is now widely accepted that an increase in LC3B-II form could be the consequence of an induction of the autophagy flux, as well as a block in the autophagosome-lysosome fusion. Therefore, in our review, all the published results describing a link between epidrugs and autophagy were systematically reanalyzed to determine whether autophagy flux was indeed increased, or inhibited, following the use of these potentially new interesting treatments targeting the autophagy process. Altogether, these recent data strongly support the idea that the determination of autophagy status could be crucial for future anticancer therapies. Indeed, the use of a combination of epidrugs and autophagy inhibitors could be beneficial for some cancer patients, whereas, in other cases, an increase of autophagy, which is frequently observed following the use of epidrugs, could lead to increased autophagy cell death.
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14
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Dey P, Son JY, Kundu A, Kim KS, Lee Y, Yoon K, Yoon S, Lee BM, Nam KT, Kim HS. Knockdown of Pyruvate Kinase M2 Inhibits Cell Proliferation, Metabolism, and Migration in Renal Cell Carcinoma. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:E5622. [PMID: 31717694 PMCID: PMC6887957 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20225622] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2019] [Revised: 11/04/2019] [Accepted: 11/04/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Emerging evidence indicates that the activity of pyruvate kinase M2 (PKM2) isoform is crucial for the survival of tumor cells. However, the molecular mechanism underlying the function of PKM2 in renal cancer is undetermined. Here, we reveal the overexpression of PKM2 in the proximal tubule of renal tumor tissues from 70 cases of patients with renal carcinoma. The functional role of PKM2 in human renal cancer cells following small-interfering RNA-mediated PKM2 knockdown, which retarded 786-O cell growth was examined. Targeting PKM2 affected the protein kinase B (AKT)/mechanistic target of the rapamycin 1 (mTOR) pathway, and downregulated the expression of glycolytic enzymes, including lactate dehydrogenase A and glucose transporter-1, and other downstream signaling key proteins. PKM2 knockdown changed glycolytic metabolism, mitochondrial function, adenosine triphosphate (ATP) level, and intracellular metabolite formation and significantly reduced 786-O cell migration and invasion. Acridine orange and monodansylcadaverine staining, immunocytochemistry, and immunoblotting analyses revealed the induction of autophagy in renal cancer cells following PKM2 knockdown. This is the first study to indicate PKM2/AKT/mTOR as an important regulatory axis mediating the changes in the metabolism of renal cancer cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Prasanta Dey
- School of Pharmacy, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon 16419, Korea; (P.D.); (J.Y.S.); (A.K.); (K.S.K.); (S.Y.); (B.M.L.)
| | - Ji Yeon Son
- School of Pharmacy, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon 16419, Korea; (P.D.); (J.Y.S.); (A.K.); (K.S.K.); (S.Y.); (B.M.L.)
| | - Amit Kundu
- School of Pharmacy, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon 16419, Korea; (P.D.); (J.Y.S.); (A.K.); (K.S.K.); (S.Y.); (B.M.L.)
| | - Kyeong Seok Kim
- School of Pharmacy, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon 16419, Korea; (P.D.); (J.Y.S.); (A.K.); (K.S.K.); (S.Y.); (B.M.L.)
| | - Yura Lee
- Severance Biomedical Science Institute, College of Medicine, Yonsei University, Seoul 03722, Korea; (Y.L.); (K.T.N.)
| | - Kyungsil Yoon
- Comparative Biomedicine Research Branch, Division of Translational Science, National Cancer Center, 323 Ilsandong-gu, Goyang-si, Gyeonggi-do 10408, Korea;
| | - Sungpil Yoon
- School of Pharmacy, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon 16419, Korea; (P.D.); (J.Y.S.); (A.K.); (K.S.K.); (S.Y.); (B.M.L.)
| | - Byung Mu Lee
- School of Pharmacy, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon 16419, Korea; (P.D.); (J.Y.S.); (A.K.); (K.S.K.); (S.Y.); (B.M.L.)
| | - Ki Taek Nam
- Severance Biomedical Science Institute, College of Medicine, Yonsei University, Seoul 03722, Korea; (Y.L.); (K.T.N.)
| | - Hyung Sik Kim
- School of Pharmacy, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon 16419, Korea; (P.D.); (J.Y.S.); (A.K.); (K.S.K.); (S.Y.); (B.M.L.)
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15
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15-Deoxy-∆- 12,14-Prostaglandin J2 (15d-PGJ2), an Endogenous Ligand of PPAR- γ: Function and Mechanism. PPAR Res 2019; 2019:7242030. [PMID: 31467514 PMCID: PMC6699332 DOI: 10.1155/2019/7242030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2019] [Accepted: 07/14/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
15-Deoxy-∆-12,14-prostaglandin J2 (15d-PGJ2), a natural peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ (PPAR-γ) agonist, has been explored in some detail over the last 20 years. By triggering the PPAR-γ signalling pathway, it plays many roles and exerts antitumour, anti-inflammatory, antioxidation, antifibrosis, and antiangiogenesis effects. Although many synthetic PPAR-γ receptor agonists have been developed, as an endogenous product of PPAR-γ receptors, 15d-PGJ2 has beneficial characteristics including rapid expression and the ability to contribute to a natural defence mechanism. In this review, we discuss the latest advances in our knowledge of the biological role of 15d-PGJ2 mediated through PPAR-γ. It is important to understand its structure, synthesis, and functional mechanisms to develop preventive agents and limit the progression of associated diseases.
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16
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Zhu Y, Liu J, Park J, Rai P, Zhai RG. Subcellular compartmentalization of NAD + and its role in cancer: A sereNADe of metabolic melodies. Pharmacol Ther 2019; 200:27-41. [PMID: 30974124 PMCID: PMC7010080 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2019.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2019] [Accepted: 04/02/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) is an essential biomolecule involved in many critical processes. Its role as both a driver of energy production and a signaling molecule underscores its importance in health and disease. NAD+ signaling impacts multiple processes that are dysregulated in cancer, including DNA repair, cell proliferation, differentiation, redox regulation, and oxidative stress. Distribution of NAD+ is highly compartmentalized, with each subcellular NAD+ pool differentially regulated and preferentially involved in distinct NAD+-dependent signaling or metabolic events. Emerging evidence suggests that targeting NAD+ metabolism is likely to repress many specific mechanisms underlying tumor development and progression, including proliferation, survival, metabolic adaptations, invasive capabilities, heterotypic interactions with the tumor microenvironment, and stress response including notably DNA maintenance and repair. Here we provide a comprehensive overview of how compartmentalized NAD+ metabolism in mitochondria, nucleus, cytosol, and extracellular space impacts cancer formation and progression, along with a discussion of the therapeutic potential of NAD+-targeting drugs in cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi Zhu
- School of Pharmacy, Key Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology and Drug Evaluation (Yantai University), Ministry of Education, Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Drug Delivery System and Biotech Drugs in Universities of Shandong, Yantai University, Yantai, Shandong 264005, China; Department of Molecular and Cellular Pharmacology, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA
| | - Jiaqi Liu
- School of Pharmacy, Key Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology and Drug Evaluation (Yantai University), Ministry of Education, Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Drug Delivery System and Biotech Drugs in Universities of Shandong, Yantai University, Yantai, Shandong 264005, China
| | - Joun Park
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Pharmacology, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA
| | - Priyamvada Rai
- Department of Medicine/Medical Oncology, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA; Sylvester Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA
| | - Rong G Zhai
- School of Pharmacy, Key Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology and Drug Evaluation (Yantai University), Ministry of Education, Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Drug Delivery System and Biotech Drugs in Universities of Shandong, Yantai University, Yantai, Shandong 264005, China.
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17
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Yang T, Zhou R, Yu S, Yu S, Cui Z, Hu P, Liu J, Qiao Q, Zhang J. Cytoplasmic SIRT1 inhibits cell migration and invasion by impeding epithelial-mesenchymal transition in ovarian carcinoma. Mol Cell Biochem 2019; 459:157-169. [PMID: 31317367 PMCID: PMC6679836 DOI: 10.1007/s11010-019-03559-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2019] [Accepted: 05/27/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Sirtuin1 (SIRT1) is a mammalian NAD+-dependent type III deacetylase that plays paramount roles in diverse cellular processes. The nucleocytoplasmic shuttling of SIRT1 was discovered more than a decade ago, but the roles of subcellular SIRT1 localization in tumor progression remain unclear. Here, we report that cytoplasmic SIRT1 acts as a tumor suppressor in ovarian carcinoma. By creating ovarian carcinoma cell lines overexpressing wild-type SIRT1 and nuclear localization signals (NLSs) mutated SIRT1 together with both unbiased proteomic and acetylomic approaches and Transwell assays, we identified that mutations in the NLS sequences prevented SIRT1 from entering the nucleus, resulting in the predominant cytoplasmic localization of SIRT1; the cytoplasmic localization of SIRT1 suppressed the mesenchymal program, activated the epithelial program, and inhibited the migration and invasion of tumor cells, thus providing experimental evidence that SIRT1 functions as a tumor suppressor or oncogene may depend on its subcellular localization. Altogether, our findings may highlight a novel role of cytoplasmic SIRT1 in ovarian carcinoma, providing new possible insights for studies investigating the role of SIRT1 in tumor progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tong Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Cancer Biology, Department of Pathology, Xijing Hospital, The Fourth Military Medical University, No. 169, Changle West Road, Xi'an, 710032, Shaanxi, China
| | - Ru Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Cancer Biology, Department of Pathology, Xijing Hospital, The Fourth Military Medical University, No. 169, Changle West Road, Xi'an, 710032, Shaanxi, China
| | - Shentong Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Cancer Biology, Department of Pathology, Xijing Hospital, The Fourth Military Medical University, No. 169, Changle West Road, Xi'an, 710032, Shaanxi, China
| | - Shuhong Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Cancer Biology, Department of Pathology, Xijing Hospital, The Fourth Military Medical University, No. 169, Changle West Road, Xi'an, 710032, Shaanxi, China
| | - Zhuqing Cui
- State Key Laboratory of Cancer Biology, Department of Pathology, Xijing Hospital, The Fourth Military Medical University, No. 169, Changle West Road, Xi'an, 710032, Shaanxi, China
| | - Peizhen Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Cancer Biology, Department of Pathology, Xijing Hospital, The Fourth Military Medical University, No. 169, Changle West Road, Xi'an, 710032, Shaanxi, China
| | - Jinsong Liu
- Department of Pathology, The University of Texas M.D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, 77030, USA
| | - Qing Qiao
- Department of General Surgery, Tangdu Hospital, The Fourth Military Medical University, No. 569 Xinsi Road, Xi'an, 710038, Shaanxi, China.
| | - Jing Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Cancer Biology, Department of Pathology, Xijing Hospital, The Fourth Military Medical University, No. 169, Changle West Road, Xi'an, 710032, Shaanxi, China.
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