Saikosaponin D inhibits autophagosome‑lysosome fusion and induces autophagy‑independent apoptosis in MDA‑MB‑231 breast cancer cells

Rujifang inhibits triple-negative breast cancer growth via the PI3K/AKT pathway

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Rujifang (RJF) constitutes a traditional Chinese medicinal compound extensively employed in the management of triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC). However, information regarding its potential active ingredients, antitumor effects, safety, and mechanism of action remains unreported.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To investigate the efficacy and safety of RJF in the context of TNBC.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We employed the ultra high-performance liquid chromatography-electrospray four-pole time-of-flight mass spectrometry technique (UPLC/Q-TOF-MS/MS) to scrutinize the chemical constituents of RJF. Subcutaneously transplanted tumor models were utilized to assess the impact of RJF on TNBC in vivo. Thirty female BLAB/c mice were randomly divided into five groups: the model group, cyclophosphamide group, and RJF high-dose, medium-dose, and low-dose groups. A total of 1 × 106 4T1 cells were subcutaneously injected into the right shoulder of mice, and they were administered treatments for a span of 28 days. We conducted evaluations on blood parameters, encompassing white blood cell count (WBC), red blood cell count (RBC), hemoglobin (HGB), platelet count (PLT), neutrophils, lymphocytes, and monocytes, as well as hepatorenal indicators including alkaline phosphatase (ALP), glutamate oxaloacetate transaminase (GOT), glutamate pyruvate transaminase (GPT), albumin, and creatinine (CRE) to gauge the safety of RJF. Ki67 and TUNEL were detected via immunohistochemistry and immunofluorescence, respectively. We prepared RJF drug-containing serum for TNBC cell lines and assessed the in vitro inhibitory effect of RJF on tumor cell growth through the CCK8 assay and cell cycle analysis. RT-PCR was employed to detect the mRNA expression of cyclin-dependent kinase and cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors in tumor tissues, and Western blot was carried out to ascertain the expression of cyclin and pathway-related proteins.

RESULTS

100 compounds were identified in RJF, which consisted of 3 flavonoids, 24 glycosides, 18 alkaloids, 3 amino acids, 8 phenylpropanoids, 6 terpenes, 20 organic acids, and 18 other compounds. In animal experiments, both CTX and RJF exhibited substantial antitumor effects. RJF led to an increase in the number of neutrophils in peripheral blood, with no significant impact on other hematological indices. In contrast, CTX reduced red blood cell count, hemoglobin levels, and white blood cell count, while increasing platelet count. RJF exhibited no discernible influence on hepatorenal function, whereas Cyclophosphamide (CTX) decreased ALP, GOT, and GPT levels. Both CTX and RJF reduced the expression of Ki67 and heightened the occurrence of apoptosis in tumor tissue. RJF drug-containing serum hindered the viability of 4T1 and MD-MBA-231 cells in a time and concentration-dependent manner. In cell cycle experiments, RJF diminished the proportion of G2 phase cells and arrested the cell cycle at the S phase. RT-PCR analysis indicated that RJF down-regulated the mRNA expression of CDK2 and CDK4, while up-regulating that of P21 and P27 in tumor tissue. The trends in CDKs and CDKIs protein expression mirrored those of mRNA expression. Moreover, the PI3K/AKT pathway displayed downregulation in the tumor tissue of mice treated with RJF.

CONCLUSION

RJF demonstrates effectiveness and safety in the context of TNBC. It exerts anti-tumor effects by arresting the cell cycle at the S phase through the PI3K-AKT pathway.

Molecular mechanism of Saikosaponin-d in the treatment of gastric cancer based on network pharmacology and in vitro experimental verification

The study aimed to utilize network pharmacology combined with cell experiments to research the mechanism of action of Saikosaponin-d in the treatment of gastric cancer. Drug target genes were obtained from the PubChem database and the Swiss Target Prediction database. Additionally, target genes for gastric cancer were obtained from the GEO database and the Gene Cards database. The core targets were then identified and further analyzed through gene ontology (GO), Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG), and GESA enrichment. The clinical relevance of the core targets was assessed using the GEPIA and HPA databases. Molecular docking of drug monomers and core target proteins was performed using Auto Duck Tools and Pymol software. Finally, in vitro cellular experiments including cell viability, apoptosis, cell scratch, transwell invasion, transwell migration, qRT-PCR, and Western blot were conducted to verify these findings of network pharmacology. The network pharmacology analysis predicted that the drug monomers interacted with 54 disease targets. Based on clinical relevance analysis, six core targets were selected: VEGFA, IL2, CASP3, BCL2L1, MMP2, and MMP1. Molecular docking results showed binding activity between the Saikosaponin-d monomer and these core targets. Saikosaponin-d could inhibit gastric cancer cell proliferation, induce apoptosis, and inhibit cell migration and invasion.

The therapeutic effect of traditional Chinese medicine on breast cancer through modulation of the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway

Breast cancer, the most prevalent malignant tumor among women globally, is significantly influenced by the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway, which plays a crucial role in its initiation and progression. While conventional chemotherapy, the standard clinical treatment, suffers from significant drawbacks like severe side effects, high toxicity, and limited prognostic efficacy, Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) provides a promising alternative. TCM employs a multi-targeted therapeutic approach, which results in fewer side effects and offers a high potential for effective treatment. This paper presents a detailed analysis of the therapeutic impacts of TCM on various subtypes of breast cancer, focusing on its interaction with the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway. Additionally, it explores the effectiveness of both monomeric and compound forms of TCM in the management of breast cancer. We also discuss the potential of establishing biomarkers for breast cancer treatment based on key proteins within the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway. Our aim is to offer new insights into the prevention and treatment of breast cancer and to contribute to the standardization of TCM.

Unveiling the pharmacological potential of plant triterpenoids in breast cancer management: an updated review

Breast cancer is the most prevalent type of cancer, the fifth leading cause of cancer-related deaths, and the second leading cause of cancer deaths among women globally. Recent research has provided increasing support for the significance of phytochemicals, both dietary and non-dietary, particularly triterpenoids, in the mitigation and management of breast cancer. Recent studies showed that triterpenoids are promising agents in the treatment and inhibition of breast cancer achieved through the implementation of several molecular modes of action on breast cancer cells. This review discusses recent innovations in plant triterpenoids and their underlying mechanisms of action in combating breast cancer within the timeframe spanning from 2017 to 2023. The present work is an overview of different plant triterpenoids with significant inhibition on proliferation, migration, apoptosis resistance, tumor angiogenesis, or metastasis in various breast cancer cells. The anticancer impact of triterpenoids may be attributed to their antiproliferative activity interfering with angiogenesis and differentiation, regulation of apoptosis, DNA polymerase inhibition, change in signal transductions, and impeding metastasis. The present review focuses on several targets, mechanisms, and pathways associated with pentacyclic triterpenoids, which are responsible for their anticancer effects. We could conclude that natural triterpenoids are considered promising agents to conquer breast cancer.

Saikosaponin D reverses epinephrine- and norepinephrine-induced gemcitabine resistance in intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma by downregulating ADRB2/glycolysis signaling

Intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma (iCCA) is a highly fatal malignancy with rapidly increasing incidence and mortality worldwide. Currently, gemcitabine-based systemic chemotherapy is the main clinical therapeutic regimen; however, its efficacy is poor, and its mechanism has not been elucidated. In this study, we use a Seahorse Extracellular Flux analyser to measure glycolysis capacity (extracellular acidification rate, ECAR) and oxygen consumption rate (OCR). The glucose uptake or lactic acid content is detected, and the effects of saikosaponin D, an active compound derived from Bupleuri Radix (a traditional Chinese medicine for soothing the liver and relieving depression), on gemcitabine cytotoxicity in norepinephrine-stimulated iCCA cells are analysed. We find that adrenergic signaling plays a fundamental role in chronic stress-induced therapeutic resistance in iCCA. Norepinephrine (NE) and epinephrine (E) enhance the proliferation of iCCA cells and interfere with the response to gemcitabine through activation of the β2-adrenergic receptor (ADRB2). Furthermore, we find that NE upregulates the expressions of several drug efflux-related genes (such as ABCG2 and MDR1) and promotes glycolysis in iCCA cells. In addition, saikosaponin D reverses the poor response of iCCA cells to gemcitabine by downregulating ADRB2 level. Furthermore, saikosaponin D inhibits drug efflux and glycolysis in iCCA cells by regulating the expressions of MDR1, ABCG2, HK2, and GLUT1. Collectively, saikosaponin D enhances the antitumor effect of gemcitabine by controlling glucose metabolism and drug efflux by inhibiting the ADRB2 signaling. Therefore, the combination of saikosaponin D and gemcitabine may be a potential therapeutic strategy for the treatment of iCCA.

Pharmacological properties and derivatives of saikosaponins-a review of recent studies

OBJECTIVES

Saikosaponins (SSs) constitute a class of medicinal monomers characterised by a triterpene tricyclic structure. Despite their potential therapeutic effects for various pathological conditions, the underlying mechanisms of their actions have not been systematically analysed. Here, we mainly review the important anti-inflammatory, anticancer, and antiviral mechanisms underlying SS actions.

METHODS

Information from multiple scientific databases, such as PubMed, the Web of Science, and Google Scholar, was collected between 2018 and 2023. The search term used was saikosaponin.

KEY FINDINGS

Numerous studies have shown that Saikosaponin A exerts anti-inflammatory effects by modulating cytokine and reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and lipid metabolism. Moreover, saikosaponin D exerts antitumor effects by inhibiting cell proliferation and inducing apoptosis and autophagy, and the antiviral mechanisms of SSs, especially against SARS-CoV-2, have been partially revealed. Interestingly, an increasing body of experimental evidence suggests that SSs show the potential for use as anti-addiction, anxiolytic, and antidepressant treatments, and therefore, the related molecular mechanisms warrant further study.

CONCLUSIONS

An increasing amount of data have indicated diverse SS pharmacological properties, indicating crucial clues for future studies and the production of novel saikosaponin-based anti-inflammatory, efficacious anticancer, and anti-novel-coronavirus agents with improved efficacy and reduced toxicity.

Assessment of Genetic Diversity in Bupleurum spp. Basing Agronomic Traits, Medicinal Components and ISSR Markers

Radix bupleuri is one of the bulk medicinal materials in China and it is widely adopted in clinical applications and drug discovery. The investigation of agronomic traits, active component content and genetic diversity in diverse Radix bupleuri germplasms may provide evidence to promote the selection of better strains. In this research, 13 germplasms from various sources were used to investigate the variations between different Radix bupleuri germplasms. Nine biological characteristics were noted in the field, and the levels of the two primary active ingredients were determined using high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Moreover, the molecular marker technique of inter-simple sequence repeat (ISSR) and the unweighted pair group method with arithmetic means (UPGMA) were employed to evaluate the molecular genetic diversity. The findings showed that there was a wide range of variation among the many varieties of Radix bupleuri, with coefficients of variation for agronomic traits and active component content ranging from 7.62% to 41.54% and 36.47% to 53.70%, respectively. Moreover, there are different degrees of relationship between the two. Since there was a significant correlation between root weight and saikosaponin content, it was possible to classify a plant based on its weight and anticipate its saikosaponin content. The 13 species were divided into four groups based on their germplasm by genetic markers-based cluster analysis. This indicated the possibility that the component content would not necessarily be related to germplasm and might easily be influenced by environmental factors. The use of ISSR marker technology made it possible to precisely identify the various Radix bupleuri provenances and its counterfeit products. There may be a way to prevent the misunderstandings caused by the appearance and composition of Chinese medicinal substances. In our study, the germplasm of Radix bupleuri that was widely circulated in the market was comprehensively evaluated in terms of agronomic traits, active components and molecular level, and identified by simple means, to provide a theoretical basis for the evaluation and screening of fine germplasms of Radix bupleuri.

Endoplasmic reticulum stress regulates autophagic response that is involved in Saikosaponin a-induced liver cell damage

Saikosaponin a (Ssa) is an active ingredient of the Chinese herbal plant Radix Bupleuri (RB) and has severe hepatotoxicity. However, biomolecular mechanisms involved in Ssa-induced hepatotoxicity are not yet entirely clear. Previous studies reported that Ssd (an isomer of Ssa) as a sarcoplasmic/endoplasmic reticulum calcium ATPase (SERCA) inhibitor can induce autophagy in apoptotic defective cells, leading to autophagy-dependent cell death. Therefore, we speculate that endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress and autophagy may also play an important role in Ssa-induced hepatocyte death. This study aimed to explore the connection between ER stress and autophagy and Ssa-induced hepatotoxicity. Experiments in vitro showed that the cell viability of L-02 cells in the Ssa treatment group decreased, the level of autophagy marker LC3-II/LC3-I and Beclin1 increased, the level of p62 decreased, the colocalization of autophagosome and lysosome increased, and the cell viability was significantly increased after the application of autophagy inhibitors 3-MA. In addition, SSa can induce ER stress in L-02 cells in vitro. Further studies demonstrated that SSa activated the PERK/eIF2α/ATF4/CHOP pathway, IRE1-TRAF2 pathway, ATF6 pathway, and AMPK/mTOR pathway associated with ER stress. Application of ER stress inhibitors 4-PBA can significantly down-regulate the level of autophagy and improve cell viability. Results of in vivo experiments showed that treatment with 150 and 300 mg/kg Ssa significantly elevated the liver/body weight ratio and caused histological injury in mice liver. Furthermore, Ssa treatment induced significantly downregulated p62 expression but upregulated LC3-II, CHOP, and GRP78 expression in mice livers. Taken together, our results showed that SSa can activate endoplasmic reticulum stress, promote toxic autophagy, and then induce cell death. We revealed an alternative mechanism involving autophagy and ERs, by which Ssa induced hepatotoxicity.

Modified xiaoyao san combined with chemotherapy for breast cancer: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials

Background

Breast cancer is a common cause of cancer-related death worldwide. Chemotherapy plays an indispensable role in the conventional treatment of breast cancer, bringing some physical burdens and discomfort on cancer patients. Consequently, more and more patients turn to seeking the help of Complementary and Alternative Medicine (CAM), mainly traditional Chinese medicine (TCM). Xiaoyao san (XYS), a classical formula, has been shown to improve symptoms of breast cancer. An increasing number of researches suggest that compared to chemotherapy alone, Chinese herbal medicine combined with chemotherapy could increase effectiveness and reduce toxicity caused by chemotherapy. Emerging experimental research continuously demonstrated some of the components in XYS could stop breast cancer tumor cells from growing. However, the efficacy and safety of modified XYS combined with chemotherapy remain to be determined. Therefore, it is essential to evaluate the comparative effectiveness and safety of modified XYS combined with chemotherapy in-depth, thus providing clinicians and policymakers with evidence-based guidance and new treatment options.

Objective

To comprehensively evaluate the efficacy and safety of modified XYS in conjunction with chemotherapy in treating breast cancer by conducting a meta-analysis.

Methods

8 databases were systemically searched until April 3, 2022, including Web of Science PubMed, EMBASE, Cochrane Library, China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI), Wanfang, Chinese Scientific Journals Database (VIP), and Chinese Biological Medical Database (CBM). Relevant randomized controlled trials (RCTs) comparing modified XYS in combination with chemotherapy versus chemotherapy alone were included. For the evaluation of methodological quality, Cochrane Collaboration was considered. Software Review Manager (version 5.4) was used for data analysis. Software STATA (version 15.0) was employed for sensitivity analysis and publication bias.

Results

Altogether, 17 RCTs involving 1207 patients were investigated in the current review. The findings revealed that modified XYS combined with chemotherapy could lead to beneficial improvements compared to chemotherapy alone. More specifically, the combined therapy could enhance the short-term efficacy in the treatment of solid tumors (OR: 1.74; 95% CI 1.27 to 2.39; P = 0.0006; I² = 0%); improve QOL (quality of life) (OR: 3.75; 95% CI 2.58 to 5.44; P < 0.00001; I² = 0%); reduce clinical symptoms (OR: 3.69; 95% CI 1.43 to 9.49; P = 0.007; I² = 53%); ease depression (MD: -12.96; 95% CI -16.09 to -9.83; P < 0.00001; I² = 0%); increase leukocytes (OR: 0.32; 95% CI 0.20 to 0.50; P < 0.00001; I² = 0%) and platelets (OR: 0.37; 95% CI 0.20 to 0.67; P = 0.001; I² = 0%); reduce nausea and vomiting (OR: 0.26; 95% CI 0.15 to 0.44; P < 0. 00001; I² = 0%); mitigate cardiotoxicity (OR: 0.16; 95% CI 0.07 to 0.36; P<0.00001; I² = 0%); prolong survival time (OR: 2.19; 95% CI 1.03 to 4.66; P = 0.04; I² = 0%), compared to chemotherapy alone. Unfortunately, there was no statistically significant difference in damage to the liver and kidney (OR: 0.59; 95% CI 0.29 to 1.21; P = 0.15; I² = 0%).

Conclusion

The existing evidence suggests modified XYS combined with chemotherapy leads to beneficial improvements in the management of breast cancer, which may serve as a promising therapy for breast cancer in clinical practice. Given the limited number of high quality RCTs, more rigorous, scientific, double-blinded, large-scale, multi-center clinical trials are warranted further.

Systematic review registration

https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/PROSPERO/, identifier CRD42022357860.

Chemotherapeutic Potential of Saikosaponin D: Experimental Evidence

Saikosaponin D (SSD), an active compound derived from the traditional plant Radix bupleuri, showcases potential in disease management owing to its antioxidant, antipyretic, and anti-inflammatory properties. The toxicological effects of SSD mainly include hepatotoxicity, neurotoxicity, hemolysis, and cardiotoxicity. SSD exhibits antitumor effects on multiple targets and has been witnessed in diverse cancer types by articulating various cell signaling pathways. As a result, carcinogenic processes such as proliferation, invasion, metastasis, and angiogenesis are inhibited, whereas apoptosis, autophagy, and differentiation are induced in several cancer cells. Since it reduces side effects and strengthens anti-cancerous benefits, SSD has been shown to have an additive or synergistic impact with chemo-preventive medicines. Regardless of its efficacy and benefits, the considerations of SSD in cancer prevention are absolutely under-researched due to its penurious bioavailability. Diverse studies have overcome the impediments of inadequate bioavailability using nanotechnology-based methods such as nanoparticle encapsulation, liposomes, and several other formulations. In this review, we emphasize the association of SSD in cancer therapeutics and the discussion of the mechanisms of action with the significance of experimental evidence.

Inhibitors and Activators of the p38 Mitogen- Activated MAP Kinase (MAPK) Family as Drugs to Treat Cancer and Inflammation

The p38 MAP kinases are a sub-family of the broad group of mitogen-activated serine-threonine protein kinases. The best-characterised, most widely expressed, and most targeted by drugs is p38α MAP kinase. This review briefly summarises the place of p38α MAP kinase in cellular signalling and discusses the structures and activity profiles of representative examples of the major classes of inhibitors and activators (both synthetic compounds and natural products) of this enzyme. Primary screening was primarily direct in vitro inhibition of isolated p38α enzyme.

A new discovery: Total Bupleurum saponin extracts can inhibit the proliferation and induce apoptosis of colon cancer cells by regulating the PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Bupleurum chinense DC has a history of using herb in China for more than 2000 years, which can be traced back to the Classic of Shennong Materia Medica in the Han Dynasty. Although Saikosaponin, the main active ingredient of Bupleurum, has the effects of anti-tumor, yet we still do not know the mechanism by total Bupleurum saponin extracts (TBSE) produces this effect on colon cancer.

AIM OF THE STUDY

It is predicted by network pharmacology that TBSE may play an anti-colon cancer role by regulating the PI3K-Akt-mTOR pathway. The purpose of this study is to investigate whether TBSE inhibits proliferation and promote apoptosis of colon cancer cells by regulating PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The effect of saikosaponins on the proliferation of SW480 and SW620 cells was detected by CCK-8, apoptosis was determined by flow cytometry, morphological changes of cells were observed by microscope, nuclear morphological changes were observed after immunofluorescence staining, the expression of apoptosis-related proteins Bax, Bcl2, Caspase3, Caspase9, Cleaved Caspase3 and Cleaved Caspase9 were detected by Western Blot, and the expression of apoptosis-related genes Bax, Bcl2, Caspase3 and Caspase9 were detected by RT-PCR. According to the theory of network pharmacology, the potential targets of saikosaponins and colon cancer were predicted by database Pharmmapper and Genecards database respectively. The intersection of saikosaponins and colon cancer was enriched and analyzed on the Metascape platform. Then, the expression of PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway related protein PI3K, Akt, Mtor, p-PI3K, p-Akt, p-mTOR were detected by Western Blot, and the corresponding amount of RNA expressions in the pathway was confirmed by RT-PCR.

RESULTS

The results of CCK-8 demonstrated that the survival rate of SW480 and SW620 cells decreased significantly when the concentration of TBSE was in the range of 25-200 μg/ml. The morphological observation showed that the cells lost normal cell morphology, cytoplasmic condensation, and partial loss of adhesion after treatment with TBSE. Flow cytometry indicated that the apoptosis rates of SW480 cells and SW620 cells treated with TBSE (50 μg/ml) were 48.47% ± 1.20% and 36.13% ± 1.76%, respectively. Western Blot firstly confirmed that TBSE significantly up-regulated the expression of pro-apoptotic proteins Bax, Caspase3, Caspase9, Cleaved Caspase3 and Cleaved Caspase9, and down-regulated the expression of anti-apoptotic protein Bcl2. And RT-PCR results implied that TBSE significantly up-regulated the gene expression of apoptotic factors Bax, Caspase3 and Caspase9, and significantly decreased the gene expression of Bcl2. It was predicted that the PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway may be the main regulatory object of the antitumor effect of TBSE by network pharmacology. Subsequent WB experiment also revealed that TBSE could significantly down-regulate (P < 0.01) the expressions of PI3K, Akt, mTOR and phosphorylated proteins P-PI3K, P-Akt, P-MTOR. Meanwhile, RT-PCR results also indicated that TBSE could significantly down-regulate (P < 0.01) the gene expression levels of PI3K, Akt and mTOR.

CONCLUSIONS

TBSE activated Bax/Bcl2 and caspase-9/caspase-3 cascade to induced apoptosis of human colon cancer SW480 and SW60 cells in a dose-dependent manner, which was obviously related to the inhibition of PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling pathway.

Saikosaponin D alleviates DOX-induced cardiac injury in vivo and in vitro

ABSTRACT

As a highly efficient anticancer agent, Doxorubicin (DOX) is used for various cancers' treatment, but DOX-induced oxidative damages contribute to a degenerative irreversible cardiac toxicity. Saikosaponin D (SSD), which is a triterpenoid saponin with many biological activities including anti-inflammatory effects and antioxidant properties, provides protection against pathologic cardiac remodeling and fibrosis. In present study, we investigated the work of SSD for DOX-induced cardiotoxicity and the involved mechanisms. We observed that DOX injection induced cardiac injury, malfunction and decreased survival rate. Besides, DOX treatment increased lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) leakage, cardiomyocyte apoptosis, myocardium fibrosis and decrease of cardiomyocytes' sizes. Meanwhile, all the effects were notably attenuated by SSD treatment. In vitro, we found that 1μM SSD could enhance the proliferation of H9c2 cells, and inhibit DOX-induced apoptosis. It was found that the levels of MDA and reactive oxygen species (ROS) were significantly reduced by improving the activities of the endogenous antioxidative enzymes including catalase (CAT), and glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px). Furthermore, SSD treatment could downregulate the DOX-induced p38 phosphorylation. Our results suggested that SSD efficiently protected the cardiomyocytes from DOX-induced cardiotoxicity by inhibiting the excessive oxidative stress via p38 MAPK signaling pathway.

Saikosaponin D: review on the antitumour effects, toxicity and pharmacokinetics

CONTEXT

Bupleuri Radix, the dried root of Bupleurum chinense DC and Bupleurum scorzonerifolium Willd (Apiaceae), is an important medicinal herb widely used to treat cancers for hundreds of years in Asian countries. As the most antitumour component but also the main toxic component in Bupleuri Radix, saikosaponin D (SSD) has attracted extensive attention. However, no summary studies have been reported on the antitumour effects, toxicity and pharmacokinetics of this potential natural anticancer substance.

OBJECTIVE

To analyse and summarise the existing findings regarding to the antitumour effects, toxicity and pharmacokinetics of SSD.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We collected relevant information published before April 2021 by conducting a search of literature available in various online databases including PubMed, Science Direct, CNKI, Wanfang database and the Chinese Biological Medicine Database. Bupleurum, Bupleuri Radix, saikosaponin, saikosaponin D, tumour, toxicity, and pharmacokinetics were used as the keywords.

RESULTS

The antitumour effects of SSD were multi-targeted and can be realised through various mechanisms, including inhibition of proliferation, invasion, metastasis and angiogenesis, as well as induction of cell apoptosis, autophagy, and differentiation. The toxicological effects of SSD mainly included hepatotoxicity, neurotoxicity, haemolysis and cardiotoxicity. Pharmacokinetic studies demonstrated that SSD had the potential to alter the pharmacokinetics of some drugs for its influence on CYPs and P-gp, and the oral bioavailability and actual pharmacodynamic substances in vivo of SSD are still controversial.

CONCLUSIONS

SSD is a potentially effective and relatively safe natural antitumour substance, but more research is needed, especially in vivo antitumour effects and pharmacokinetics of the compound.

Saikosaponin D Inhibits the Proliferation and Promotes the Apoptosis of Rat Hepatic Stellate Cells by Inducing Autophagosome Formation

Objective

This study aimed to investigate the effects of saikosaponin D (SSd) on the proliferation and apoptosis of the HSC-T6 hepatic stellate cell line and determine the key pathway that mediates SSd's function.

Methods

Cell viability was detected using the CCK-8 kit. The EdU kit and flow cytometry were used to examine cell proliferation. The Annexin V-FITC/PI double staining kit and flow cytometry were used to examine cell apoptosis. Western blot analysis was performed to analyze the expression levels of LC3, Ki67, cleaved caspase 3, Bax, and Bcl2. Autophagosome formation was detected by LC3-GFP adenovirus transfection.

Results

SSd inhibits the proliferation and promotes the apoptosis of acetaldehyde-activated HSC-T6 cells. SSd treatment increased the expression of cleaved caspase 3 and Bax but reduced that of Ki67 and Bcl2. The same concentration of SSd barely influenced the growth of normal rat liver BRL-3A cells. SSd upregulated LC3-II expression and induced autophagosome formation. Autophagy agonist rapamycin had the same effect as SSd and autophagy inhibitor 3-methyladenine could neutralize the effect of SSd in acetaldehyde-activated HSC-T6 cells.

Conclusions

SSd could inhibit the proliferation and promote the apoptosis of HSC-T6 cells by inducing autophagosome formation.

Bioinformatics, Molecular Docking and Experiments In Vitro Analyze the Prognostic Value of CXC Chemokines in Breast Cancer

The increasing incidence and mortality rate of Breast cancer (BC) make it a major public health problem around the world. CXC chemokines can mediate the migration of immune cells and regulate apoptosis in tumor. However, the expression and prognostic value of them in BC and their targeted drugs have not been clarified. Therefore, in this study, ONCOMINE, GEPIA2.0, UALCAN, Venny2.1.0, cBioPortal, STRING, Gene MANIA, Pathway Commons, DAVID6.8, Omicshare, Cytoscape3.6.1, TIMER2.0, Drug Bank, TCMSP, RSCBPDB, PubChem, pkCSM, Chem Draw, AutoDockTools-1.5.6 and PyMOL were utilized for analysis. The expression of CXCL1-3, CXCL9-13 between BC and normal tissues was significantly different in all the three databases. And the expression of CXCL1-2, CXCL12-13 was correlated with the stages of BC. But only CXCL1-3 were prone to mutation, and negatively correlated with survival and prognosis of BC patients. Taken together, CXCL1-2 might be therapeutic targets and biomarkers for BC patients. In addition, both of them were associated with immune infiltration. The results of molecular docking showed that Quercetin was most likely to be developed as drugs that interacted directly with CXCL1-2. And GLU29 of CXCL1, ASP-1, PRO-96, TRP-47 and LEU-45 of CXCL2 were the most potential sites, which provided valuable reference for further study of pharmacodynamics and mechanism. In addition, the inhibitory effect of Quercetin on proliferation and promoting apoptosis of BC related cell lines were confirmed in vitro. Western blot and Real-Time PCR confirmed that it increased the expression of CXCL1-2 in MDA-MB-231 and MCF-7 cells.

A link between chemical structure and biological activity in triterpenoids

BACKGROUND

Plants with triterpenoid compounds in nature have various biological activities and are reported in many scientific works of literature. Triterpenoids are compounds that draw the attention of scientists because of their wide source, wide variety, high medicinal value, and anti-tumor properties. However, a lack of approach to understand their chemical structures has limited the fundamental comprehension of these compounds in cancer cell therapy.

OBJECTIVE

To seek anti-cancer activity of the structures of triterpenoid compounds and their derivatives, we summarized a number of plants and their derivatives that are a source of potential novel therapeutic anti-cancer agents.

METHODS

This work focuses on relevant 1036 patents and references that detail the structure of organic compounds and derivatives for the treatment of tumors.

RESULT

Compared to tetracyclic triterpenoid, pentacyclic triterpenoid has contributed more to improve the autophagic signaling pathways of cancer cells.

CONCLUSION

The heterogenous skeleton structure of triterpenoids impaired the programmed cell death signaling pathway in various cancers.

Buyuan decoction inhibits autophagy in a rat model of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

Efforts have been made to find a better therapeutic approach with fewer side effects in treating chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). This study investigated the effect of Buyuan decoction (BYD) on autophagy in COPD rats. An experimental model with Sprague-Dawley rats was established by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) injection and cigarette smoke exposure. Rats were randomly allocated into blank control (normal control), experimental model, low-dose BYD (8.0 g/kg/day), medium-dose BYD (16.0 g/kg/day), high-dose BYD (32.0 g/kg/day) and 3-MA (methyladenine) groups (6 rats/group). Cell and tissue morphology were observed using hematoxylin and eosin staining. Autophagic vesicles were examined with a transmission electron microscope. Protein expression of LC3-II/I, BNIP-1, ATG7, p62, PI3K and p-PI3K in lung tissue was detected by Western blotting. Compared with the experimental model group, the inflammatory infiltrate in lung tissue was reduced, the nuclei of the pulmonary epithelial cells were restored to normal, and the expression of LC3, BNIP1, ATG7 and p-PI3K was significantly downregulated, while p62 expression was significantly upregulated after treatment with the BYD. The effect was most significant in the lowdose BYD group (P<0.05, all groups). These findings suggest that the BYD inhibits the occurrence of autophagy in the pathogenesis of COPD and that it can be a potential treatment.

Purified Tea (Camellia sinensis (L.) Kuntze) Flower Saponins Induce the p53-Dependent Intrinsic Apoptosis of Cisplatin-Resistant Ovarian Cancer Cells

Ovarian cancer is currently ranked at fifth in cancer deaths among women. Patients who have undergone cisplatin-based chemotherapy can experience adverse effects or become resistant to treatment, which is a major impediment for ovarian cancer treatment. Natural products from plants have drawn great attention in the fight against cancer recently. In this trial, purified tea (Camellia sinensis (L.) Kuntze) flower saponins (PTFSs), whose main components are Chakasaponin I and Chakasaponin IV, inhibited the growth and proliferation of ovarian cancer cell lines A2780/CP70 and OVCAR-3. Flow cytometry, caspase activity and Western blotting analysis suggested that such inhibitory effects of PTFSs on ovarian cancer cells were attributed to the induction of cell apoptosis through the intrinsic pathway rather than extrinsic pathway. The p53 protein was then confirmed to play an important role in PTFS-induced intrinsic apoptosis, and the levels of its downstream proteins such as caspase families, Bcl-2 families, Apaf-1 and PARP were regulated by PTFS treatment. In addition, the upregulation of p53 expression by PTFSs were at least partly induced by DNA damage through the ATM/Chk2 pathway. The results help us to understand the mechanisms underlying the effects of PTFSs on preventing and treating platinum-resistant ovarian cancer.

Research Progress on Classical Traditional Chinese Medicine Jieyu Pills in the Treatment of Depression

Depression is a common clinical psychological disease, which is called "yu zheng" in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM). TCM has a long history in the treatment of depression (yu zheng), which has unique advantages. Jieyu pill (JYP), a classical TCM formula, has been widely used for treating depression because of its clear clinical efficacy, low side effects, and high compliance. In this review, we systematically introduce recent clinical and animal experimental studies on JYP and depression, and review the pharmacological mechanism and active ingredients of JYP, as well as its clinical application in depression therapy. This systematic review provides a deep understanding of TCM prescriptions, pharmacological mechanisms, and disease-medicine interactions, and lays the foundation for developing new treatments for depression.