Systematic Review of the Gastrointestinal Effects of A1 Compared with A2 β-Casein

β-Casein A2 affects milk renneting properties, cheese yield before and after ripening, and alters the texture of Caciotta cheese produced in field conditions

The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of β-CN genetic variants on milk coagulation properties, curd and cheese yield, efficiency of cheesemaking, and quality of Caciotta cheese after 15 d of ripening. Thirty-three cheesemaking experiments were carried out at an on-farm pilot-scale dairy plant. For each cheesemaking day, small groups of cows were selected and milked separately to obtain 2 milk pools, 1 with high proportion of β-CN A1 and B in β-CN (A1B milk) and 1 with high proportion of β-CN A2 (A2 milk) in β-CN, respectively. Each milk pool originated from at least 2 cows and was processed into Caciotta cheese, producing 2 cheese wheels of commercial size. Differences across milk pools in milk composition, coagulation properties, curd yield measured by laboratory-scale microcheesemaking, cheese yield after stewing, brining, and 15 d of ripening, whey composition, recovery rates, as well as cheese composition, color, and texture were estimated using a set of mixed linear models including the random effect of the processing day, and the linear effects of the major sources of variation of the investigated traits. Compared with A1B milk, A2 milk had a remarkably 2.8-min longer rennet coagulation time, lower curd yield measured by microcheesemaking (-0.5%), cheese yield after stewing (-1.15%), brining (-0.92%), and 15-d ripening (-0.36%). No significant variations associated with the milk pools were observed in cheese composition, but cheese from A2 milk exhibited significantly lower green-to-red axis value (a*) and higher hue angle values compared with cheese processed from A1B milk, although these differences are not expected to be perceived by the human eye. Cheese from A2 milk was also characterized by a significantly lower hardness, springiness, chewiness, and gumminess than cheese from A1B milk. Our results indicate that use of A2 milk for cheese production leads to inferior technological properties and a less efficient cheesemaking process. More studies are necessary to investigate the effect of β-CN variants on product quality and consumer perception.

Determination of A1 and A2 β-CN in cow milk by HPLC-MS/MS

A2 β-CN milk has gained widespread acceptance due to its nutritional benefits. To verify the authenticity and detect adulteration and contamination in A2 milk, we developed an HPLC-MS/MS method for determining the characteristic peptides of A1 and A2 β-CN in cow milk. The method demonstrated good specificity, sensitivity, and linearity for both A1 and A2 characteristic peptides, with limit of detection of 0.01 mg/L and 0.03 mg/L, limit of quantitation of 0.03 mg/L and 0.1 mg/L, and determination coefficients of 0.9994 and 0.9992, respectively. Whereas accuracy and precision were reasonable, the recoveries varied (69.4%-151%) across concentration levels (0.04, 0.2, 1.0 g/kg), with higher recoveries for both peptides at low concentrations and lower recoveries for A2 peptide at medium and high concentrations, influenced by factors such as adsorption and ionization efficiency. We optimized the tryptic hydrolysis conditions, selecting a trypsin-to-casein ratio of 1:25 and a hydrolysis time of 6 h at 37°C. However, the hydrolysis of A1 and A2 β-CN was incomplete and asynchronous, exhibiting parabolic relationships with their respective concentrations, with hydrolysis degrees of 12.3% for A1 β-CN and 9.6% for A2 β-CN in pure powders. We finally established a regression model to calculate the actual proportion of A1 and A2 β-CN, with the detection limits of 5% for both β-CN. In the quantitation range of this model, A1 β-CN accounting for 10% to 80% or A2 β-CN accounting for 20% to 90%, the measured value of A1/A2 or A2/A1 was a power function relationship with the theoretical value. This method effectively verifies the authenticity of A1 and A2 milk, providing a reliable tool for detecting adulteration and contamination.

Distribution of β-Casein Variants and Effects on Milk Composition in Podolian Cows Reared in Gargano Promontory (Southern Italy)

The aim of the study was to evaluate β-CN variants and their effects on milk nutritional composition and protein profile in Podolian cattle breeds reared in Gargano Promontory (Southern Italy). Individual milk samples of Podolian and Holstein Friesian (HF) cattle were analyzed for β-CN allele and genotype frequencies, chemical composition and protein fractions of milk. In both populations the most common allelic variant was A2, followed by A1, whereas alleles B and I had frequencies lower than 10% in both populations. A total of 6 genotypes in Podolian population (A1A2, A1B, A2B, A1I, A2I, A2A2), and 7 genotypes (A1A1, A1A2, A1B, A2B, A1I, A2I, A2A2) in HF were detected. Milk protein, lactose and casein percentages were affected by β-CN allele in both breeds. In particular, alleles A1 and A2 resulted in higher levels of both protein and casein in HF, whereas in Podolian allele I showed the highest, alleles A1 and A2 intermediate and B the lowest levels of the mentioned parameters. Protein fractions were influenced by β-casein alleles and the most abundant protein fractions were β- and αs1- CNs in both breeds, although with different percentage distribution. In Podolian milk, regardless of the detected allele, it was observed a similar behavior for β- and κ-CNs and opposite to that observed for αs2-CN. The study of the genetic variability of milk proteins offers the opportunity to valorise the nutritional, technological, and functional features of Podolian cattle dairy productions as a strategy to sustain the economic value of this ancient breed which is well adapted to the farming systems in marginal areas.

Analysis of the Frequency of the A1 and A2 Alleles in the Beta-Casein Gene and the A, B and E Alleles in the Kappa-Casein Gene in Local Cattle Breeds: Polish Red and Polish White-Backed

In view of the threat to local breeds resulting from intensive animal production, many studies are conducted in search of arguments confirming their importance in food production. In the case of milk production, not only is its quantity important, but its quality is as well, including its chemical composition. Particular focus has recently been placed on the casein proteins beta-casein (CSN2) and kappa-casein (CSN3), due to their potential impact on human health or on the suitability of milk for cheese production. The present study analysed the polymorphism of these proteins in 1777 cows belonging to two local cattle breeds, Polish Red and Polish White-Backed, using Illumina Infinium XT SNP technology on a EuroGenomics MD chip. The results indicate that the Polish White-Backed breed is predisposed to produce 'A2 milk', as the frequency of the CSN2 A2 allele in the population was 61.2%. The Polish Red breed was characterised by a higher frequency of the CNS3 B allele (35%), which according to extensive scientific literature is associated with better coagulation properties, and increased whey expulsion. The highest yield of milk and its constituents, confirmed at p ≤ 0.01, was obtained for Polish White-Backed cows with the A2A2 genotype in CSN2 and cows with the AA genotype in CSN3. In the Polish Red breed, no statistically significant differences were obtained between means for milk production traits.

Proline-Selective Electrochemiluminescence Detecting a Single Amino Acid Variation Between A1 and A2 β-Casein Containing Milks

The proline amino acid and prolyl residues of peptides/proteins confer unique biological and biochemical properties that motivates the development of proline-selective analysis. The study focuses on one specific class of problem, the detection of single amino acid variants involving proline, and reports a Pro-selective electrochemiluminescence (ECL) method. To develop this method, the A1-/A2- variants of milk's β-casein protein are investigated because it is a well-established example and abundant samples are readily available. Specifically, β-casein has 209 amino acids with 34 (or 35) proline residues: the A1-variant has a Pro-to-His substitution at position 67 (relative to the A2 variant). The study shows that proline's strong luminescence allows the generic discrimination of: Pro from other amino acids; an A2-oligopeptide from an A1-oligopeptide; the A2-β-casein variant from the A1-variant; and commercially-available A2 milks from A1-containing regular milks. The evidence indicates that luminescence depends on proline content and accessibility, as well as signal quenching. Compared to conventional immunoassays, the ECL method is simple, rapid, and inexpensive. Further, the ECL-method is Pro-selective (vs molecularly-selective like typical immunoassays) which should make it broadly useful for studying the role of proline in biology and especially useful for tracking the digestion of proline-rich proteins in the diet.

Variations in Bovine Milk Proteins and Processing Conditions and Their Effect on Protein Digestibility in Humans: A Review of In Vivo and In Vitro Studies

Bovine milk proteins account for 10% of the global protein supply, which justifies the importance of thoroughly understanding their digestive processes. Extensive research on digestion is being conducted both in vivo and in vitro. However, interpretations and comparisons across different studies require a thorough understanding of the methodologies used. Both the rate and extent of milk protein digestion can be affected by several intrinsic and extrinsic factors with potential implications for overall digestibility and physiological responses. Among intrinsic factors, the impact of genetic variants in native milk proteins has emerged as a growing research area. To these, further complexity is added by the processing conditions frequently applied to milk prior to consumption. The main aim of this work is to provide an overview of the current knowledge on the impact of variations in milk protein profiles (particularly whey: casein ratio and protein polymorphisms), the treatments applied during processing (pasteurisation, homogenisation) and consumption (temperature changes) on protein digestion. To support the interpretation of the current literature, this manuscript also presents a historical perspective into research in this field and summarizes the protocols that are most frequently used, presently, on in vitro digestion studies.

The A1/A2 β-casein genotype of cows, but not their horn status, influences peptide generation during simulated digestion of milk

The effect of the horn status of cows on their milk composition and quality is a controversial research topic. In this study, 128 milk samples from 64 horned and 64 disbudded Brown Swiss and Original Braunvieh cows were collected from alpine farms where both horned and disbudded cows were grazing on mountain pastures. The samples were analyzed for their detailed composition and protein digestion in a simulated in vitro digestion (INFOGEST). To exclude probable influences on digestion, the β-CN genotype with its variants A1 and A2 was also included in the study. The effects of horn status and β-CN genotype were investigated in linear mixed models, which included additional influencing random factors such as Original Braunvieh blood proportion, stage of lactation, and farm. Horn status did not have any effect on milk composition or digestion. In contrast, milk from A1A1 cows showed a different protein digestion than milk of A1A2 and A2A2 cows in the gastric phase, including smaller amounts of β-casomorphin(BCM)21-associated peptides and larger amounts of BCM11-associated peptides. Abundances of BCM7 did not differ between β-CN genotypes. At the end of the intestinal phase, the digested milk of A1A1 and A2A2 β-CN genotypes did not differ.

An A2 β-casein infant formula with high sn-2 palmitate and casein phosphopeptides supports adequate growth, improved stool consistency, and bone strength in healthy, term Chinese infants: a randomized, double-blind, controlled clinical trial

The aim of this randomized, double-blind, controlled trial was to examine the effects of infant formula on the growth, stool consistency, and bone strength of infants (n = 120) over a period of 4 months. The investigational group was fed an A2 β-casein cow's milk infant formula containing casein phosphopeptides (CPP) and high sn-2 palmitate (54% of total palmitate at sn-2). The control group was fed a standard cow's milk formula without CPP and with low sn-2 palmitate (29% of total palmitate at sn-2). The third group was fed human milk (HM) (n = 60). All three groups had similar baseline characteristics, and maintained similar BMI, sleep habits, and growth rates in body weight and length throughout the study. However, compared to the control group, infants in the investigational and human milk groups had significantly: (i) greater body length at 90, 120, and 150 days of age; (ii) greater growth rate in head circumference from 30 to 60 days of age, with larger head circumference at 60 days of age; (iii) larger daily stool frequency at 60, 90, and 120 days of age; (iv) softer stool at 60, 90, and 120 days of age; (v) higher bone quality index and bone speed of sound at 150 days of age; (vi) fewer hours of crying at 60 and 90 days of age; (vii) less abdominal distention, burp, and flatus at 60, 90, and 120 days of age; and (viii) less constipation at 90 days of age. At other time points, no significant differences were observed between the three groups. No serious adverse events (AEs) related to the study products were reported, and significantly fewer infants in the investigational and HM groups experienced at least one AE compared to the control group. The study suggests that the A2 β-casein formula with high sn-2 palmitate and CPP supports adequate growth, is well tolerated, and may have beneficial effects on stool consistency, gastrointestinal comfort, crying duration, and bone density, comparable to HM. Clinical trial registration: https://clinicaltrials.gov/, NCT04749290.

Effect of β-casein A1 or A2 milk on body composition, milk intake, and growth in Holstein, Simmental, and crossbred dairy calves of both sexes

The aim of this study was to compare the effects of feeding homozygous β-CN A1 or A2 milk on the body composition, milk intake, and growth of German Holstein (GH), German Simmental (GS), and crossbred (CR) dairy calves of both sexes during the first 2 wk of life. A total of 104 calves (n = 54 female, f; and n = 50 male, m) from the breed groups GH (n = 23), GS (n = 61), and crossbred GH × GS (n = 20) were evaluated. Calves were weighed after birth and received colostrum ad libitum. On the second day, calves were alternately housed in pairs in double-igloo systems according to their random birth order and received either A1 milk (n = 52; 27 female and 25 male) or A2 milk (n = 52; 27 female and 25 male). They were offered 7.5 L/d, and the individual actual total milk intake was recorded. Daily energy-corrected milk intake was also calculated based on the milk composition (fat and protein). Fecal scores were recorded daily. On d 15, visceral adipose tissue (VAT) volume was assessed by open magnetic resonance imaging and dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA). In addition, fat and lean mass (g), as well as bone mineral content (g) and bone mineral density (g/cm2), were determined by DXA. The body composition, milk intake, and growth were similar between the 2 types of milk in the first 2 wk of life. Female calves had more VAT and fat mass, but less lean mass than male calves. GH and CR calves had more VAT and less lean mass than GS calves. Male calves were heavier than female calves after birth and on d 15. The average days with diarrhea and diarrhea occurrence were similar between calves fed A1 and A2 milk and between both sex groups. GS calves presented slightly more days with diarrhea and increased odds of having diarrhea compared with GH calves, not differing from CR.

Emerging Parameters Justifying a Revised Quality Concept for Cow Milk

Milk has become a staple food product globally. Traditionally, milk quality assessment has been primarily focused on hygiene and composition to ensure its safety for consumption and processing. However, in recent years, the concept of milk quality has expanded to encompass a broader range of factors. Consumers now also consider animal welfare, environmental impact, and the presence of additional beneficial components in milk when assessing its quality. This shifting consumer demand has led to increased attention on the overall production and sourcing practices of milk. Reflecting on this trend, this review critically explores such novel quality parameters, offering insights into how such practices meet the modern consumer's holistic expectations. The multifaceted aspects of milk quality are examined, revealing the intertwined relationship between milk safety, compositional integrity, and the additional health benefits provided by milk's bioactive properties. By embracing sustainable farming practices, dairy farmers and processors are encouraged not only to fulfill but to anticipate consumer standards for premium milk quality. This comprehensive approach to milk quality underscores the necessity of adapting dairy production to address the evolving nutritional landscape and consumption patterns.

BCM-7: Opioid-like Peptide with Potential Role in Disease Mechanisms

Bovine milk is an essential supplement due to its rich energy- and nutrient-rich qualities. Caseins constitute the vast majority of the proteins in milk. Among these, β-casein comprises around 37% of all caseins, and it is an important type of casein with several different variants. The A1 and A2 variants of β-casein are the most researched genotypes due to the changes in their composition. It is accepted that the A2 variant is ancestral, while a point mutation in the 67th amino acid created the A1 variant. The digestion derived of both A1 and A2 milk is BCM-7. Digestion of A2 milk in the human intestine also forms BCM-9 peptide molecule. The opioid-like characteristics of BCM-7 are highlighted for their potential triggering effect on several diseases. Most research has been focused on gastrointestinal-related diseases; however other metabolic and nervous system-based diseases are also potentially triggered. By manipulating the mechanisms of these diseases, BCM-7 can induce certain situations, such as conformational changes, reduction in protein activity, and the creation of undesired activity in the biological system. Furthermore, the genotype of casein can also play a role in bone health, such as altering fracture rates, and calcium contents can change the characteristics of dietary products. The context between opioid molecules and BCM-7 points to a potential triggering mechanism for the central nervous system and other metabolic diseases discussed.

Improving Biohydrogen Production by Dark Fermentation of Milk Processing Wastewater by Physicochemical and Enzymatic Pretreatments

Biohydrogen is considered an alternative energy reserve. Dark fermentation is one of the important green hydrogen production techniques that utilizes organic waste as raw material. It is a promising bioconversion, easy, not expensive, and cost-effective process. Milk processing wastewater (MPWW) is an organic effluent generated in large volumes on a daily basis and disposed directly into the environment. In this research, the study of biochemical hydrogen potential (BHP) test of MPWW was evaluated and used as substrate (S). A waste sludge was used as an inoculum (I) and source of bacteria. Both substrate and inoculum were analyzed and the study was based mainly on the ratio of volatile solids (VS) of inoculum and substrate subsequently, which was noted as I/S. Different substrate pretreatments were performed: ultrasonic, thermal, chemical, and enzymatic hydrolysis. The I/S ratio impact was investigated and evaluated the hydrogen production improvement. Modified Gompertz and modified Logistic kinetic models were employed for the kinetic modeling of cumulative hydrogen production values. Results show that I/S ratio of 1/4 gVS/gVS resulted from the best hydrogen production of 59.96 mL during 30 days of MPWW fermentation without pretreatment. It was also shown that all the adopted pretreatments enhanced hydrogen production, whereas ultrasonic pretreatment for 5 min increased the production by only 14.84%. Heat pretreatment was more efficient, where the hydrogen production increased from 60 to 162 mL (170% of improvement) using heat shock at 90 °C for 30 min. The impact of chemical pretreatment was different from a reagent to another. Pretreatment using calcium hydroxide resulted in the biggest hydrogen production of 165.3 mL (175.5%) compared to the other chemical pretreatments. However, the best hydrogen production was given by the biological pretreatment using enzymatic hydrolysis (Lactase) resulting in 254 mL of hydrogen production, which is equivalent to 323.62% of production improvement. Modified Gompertz and Logistic kinetic models fitted well with experimental data. Thus, the enzymatic hydrolysis of MPWW proved to be a promising technique for biohydrogen production enhancement.

Health-Related Outcomes and Molecular Methods for the Characterization of A1 and A2 Cow's Milk: Review and Update

A new trend in cow's milk has emerged in the market called type A1 and A2 milk. These products have piqued the interest of both consumers and researchers. Recent studies suggest that A2 milk may have potential health benefits beyond that of A1 milk, which is why researchers are investigating this product further. It is interesting to note that the A1 and A2 milk types have area-specific characteristics compared to breed-specific characteristics. Extensive research has focused on milk derivatives obtained from cow's milk, primarily through in vitro and animal studies. However, few clinical studies have been conducted in humans, and the results have been unsatisfactory. New molecular techniques for identifying A1 and A2 milk may help researchers develop new studies that can clarify certain controversies surrounding A1 milk. It is essential to exercise extreme caution when interpreting the updated literature. It has the potential to spread panic worldwide and have negative economic implications. Therefore, this study aims to investigate the differences between A1 and A2 milk in various research areas and clarify some aspects regarding these two types of milk.

A2 milk consumption and its health benefits: an update

Milk is a widely consumed nutrient-rich food containing protein variants such as casein A2 and A1. A1 differs from A2 in an amino acid at position 67 (Pro67 to His67). The breakdown of β-casein yields β-casomorphins (BCM), among which BCM-7 is extensively studied for its effects on the human body. Animal studies have shown that A1 β-casein milk increases digestive transit time and enhances myeloperoxidase activity. Individuals with lactose intolerance prefer A2 milk to conventional A1 milk, as BCM-7 in A1 milk can lead to inflammation and discomfort in sensitive individuals. A2 milk, which contains A2 β-casein, is believed to be more easily digestible than A1 β-casein. Its popularity has grown owing to reports linking A1 casein to diseases such as type 1 diabetes, heart disease, and autism. A2 milk has gained popularity as an alternative to A1 milk, primarily because of its potential benefits for individuals with certain diseases. This review aims to provide an updated understanding of A2 milk consumption and its health benefits. This review aims to provide an updated understanding of A2 milk consumption and its health benefits.

Detection of A2A2 genotype of beta casein protein (CSN2) gene in local, exotic and cross bred cattle in Pakistan

Genetic variants of bovine Beta-casein protein (CSN2) gene especially A1 and A2 are the most important variants in dairy cattle. A1 milk protein is considered as risk factor for different disease and milk intolerance which release Beta-Casomorphin-7 during digestion which is a bioactive opioid but not released from A2 milk protein. This opioid is responsible for several human health problems like Coronary Heart disease, type 1 diabetics, milk intolerance and other neurological disorders. In present study, 360 blood sample were collected from Lohani, Achai, jersey, Holstein Friesian, Achai x jersey, Friesian x Sahiwal and Sahiwal x Friesian from different region of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP) province. The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplicons were sequenced for the identification of polymorphism in exon 7 of Beta-casein protein (CSN2) gene. Sequencing analysis explored CSN2 genotype in exon 7 using the Genomic sequence from GenBank (X.71104) g.8101 C > A at codon 67. The allelic and genotypic frequencies of CSN2 gene were analyzed and observed that Holstein Friesian cattle exhibited A1A2 33%, A1A1 50% and A2A2 17%, Jersey cattle show 68% A1A1, 18% A1A2 and 14% A2A2, Sahiwal x Friesian 56% A1A1, 26% A1A2 and 18% A2A2, Jersey × Achai 78% A2A2, 15% A1A2 and 7% A1A1, Achai 100% A2A2 Lohani 100% A2A2. This is a preliminary study, conducted with meager resources, therefore, it is very difficult to make conclusion that which particular breed possess harmful alleles and which breed possess useful alleles of beta-casein gene. Therefore, a comprehensive molecular work is needed to be performed with greater number of samples sequencing.

Comparative evaluation of A1A2 and A2A2 cow milk-containing diets on biochemical and histological parameters of Wistar rats

This Research Communication aims to compare the effect of A1A2 and A2A2 cow milk diets on the biochemical and histological parameters of rats. The rats were divided into four groups and fed with a normal diet, A2 milk powder, A1A2 or A2A2 cow milk diets for 90 d. Blood glucose, kidney function, liver function and lipid profile were examined during the experimental period. The study showed an increase in the body weight of the A1A2 group whereas a slight decrease in the A2A2 group, and blood glucose levels increased from d 0 to day 90 in all experimental groups. However, none of these changes were found to be statistically insignificant (P > 0.05). Moreover, no significant changes were recorded in other parameters (serum glutamic pyruvic transferase and serum glutamic-oxaloacetic transaminase for liver function, bilirubin direct, cholesterol, triglycerides, creatinine and uric acid). The histology of the liver, kidney and pancreas also showed no changes in all groups. Overall, this study revealed no significant difference in the nutritional values of A1A2 and A2A2 milk types and hence equally beneficial for health. Although the present study showed no significant difference in the effect of both milk types in 90 d, further studies might be conducted to evaluate their longer term effects.

Generation and characterization of avian IgY antibodies for detecting beta-casein A1 in bovine milk

Beta-casein is a primary milk protein that constitutes approximately 30% of the casein in bovine milk, with the two most common types in cattle being A1 and A2. The A2 protein differs from the A1 version due to a mutation in the codon at position 67, resulting in a histidine to proline substitution. However, the bioactive peptide, beta-casomorphine-7 (BCM7), which originates from partial proteolysis of the A1 variant, has been linked to several gastrointestinal disorders in humans. Production of A1 beta casein-free products is increasing demand in the milk market, worldwide. This study generated and characterized a polyclonal IgY antibody that specifically recognizes the A1 beta-casein protein present in cow's milk. A commercially available IgY anti-A1 antibody was used as a positive control, and the sensitivity and specificity of both the commercial and produced anti-A1 antibodies were evaluated. The results showed 100% sensitivity and specificity of 100% of the commercial IgY anti-A1. The in-house produced anti-A1 antibody demonstrated a sensitivity of 95.2% and a specificity of 100%, indicating its potential as a reliable and cost effective tool for detecting A1 beta-casein protein in milk samples.

Worldwide research on the health effects of bovine milk containing A1 and A2 β-casein: Unraveling the current scenario and future trends through bibliometrics and text mining

The possible adverse effect of consuming bovine milk with A1 β-casein (but not with A2 β-casein) on health aspects due to the release of β-casomorphin-7 (BCM-7) is currently under debate. The aim of this study was to perform a bibliometric analysis of studies extracted from Scopus to explore the relationship between BCM-7, A1 or A2 bovine milk with different aspects of health. Over time, several research groups were formed that are no longer active and although some authors have returned to the field of study, they have focused their efforts mainly on conducting reviews that show the same imprecise conclusions due to the few original articles. Research is concentrated in Europe and Asia, where New Zealand, China and Germany are the countries with the most publications, records and citations on the subject, respectively. On the other hand, no country in Africa or South America has scientific production, which opens the possibility of building collaborations between countries and exploring areas that lack scientific studies. Based on conflicting information from primarily in vitro and animal studies, and limited clinical trials with poor designs, A1 milk presents pro-inflammatory and oxidative activity, but the evidence is insufficient to associate its consumption with negative health effects. However, A2 milk may be better tolerated by the digestive system of some individuals, suggesting its possible modulating role in the intestinal microbiota. Stronger scientific evidence is needed to reach a consensus on whether the presence of β-casein A1 can significantly negatively affect health. The information shown will allow a better understanding of the subject and consumers will be able to make their own decisions regarding A1 or A2 milk.

Modulatory Effects of A1 Milk, A2 Milk, Soy, and Egg Proteins on Gut Microbiota and Fermentation

Milk can be divided into A1 and A2 types according to β-casein variants, and there is a debate about whether A1 milk consumption exacerbates gut environments. This study examined the cecum microbiota and fermentation in mice fed A1 casein, A2 casein, mixed casein (commercial casein), soy protein isolate, and egg white. The cecum acetic acid concentration was higher, and the relative abundances of Muribaculaceae and Desulfovibrionaceae were greater in mice fed A1 versus A2 casein. The other parameters of cecum fermentation and microbiota composition were similar among the mice fed A1, A2, and mixed caseins. The differences were more distinctive among the three caseins, soy, and egg feedings. Chao 1 and Shannon indices of the cecum microbiota were lowered in egg white-fed mice, and the microbiota of mice fed milk, soy, and egg proteins were separately grouped by principal coordinate analysis. Mice fed the three caseins were characterized by a high abundance of Lactobacillaceae and Clostridiaceae, those fed soy were characterized by Corynebacteriaceae, Muribaculaceae, and Ruminococcaceae, and those fed egg white were characterized by Eggerthellaceae, Rikenellaceae, and Erysipelatoclostridiaceae. Thus, although several differences can arise between A1 and A2 caseins in terms of their modulatory effects on gut environments, the differences between milk, soy, and egg proteins can be more distinctive and are worth further consideration.

Modification of a previously patented method to unequivocally score A2-like and A1-like bovine β-casein variants

A growing interest in the production and commercialization of A2 cow's milk has been observed in many countries in the last few years due to the beneficial properties for human health attributed to A2 β-casein variant. Methods of varying complexity and different equipment requirements have been proposed for the determination of the β-casein genotype of individual cows. We proposed herein a modification of a previously patented method based on an amplification-created restriction site PCR followed by restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis. This method allows to identify and differentiate A2-like from A1-like β-casein variants, after differential endonuclease cleavage flanking the nucleotide that determines the amino acid at position 67 of β-casein. The advantages of this method are that it: • enables to unequivocally score A2-like as well as A1-like β-casein variants, • can be performed at low cost in simply equipped molecular biology laboratories, and • can be scaled up to analyze hundreds of samples per day. For these reasons, and based on the results obtained from the analysis carried out in this work, it showed to be a reliable method for the screening of herds to selective breeding of homozygous cows and bulls for A2 or A2-like alleles.

Effectiveness of Growing-Up Milk Containing Only A2 β-Casein on Digestive Comfort in Toddlers: A Randomized Controlled Trial in China

BACKGROUND

Emerging clinical evidence indicates the potential gastrointestinal (GI) benefits of milk containing only A2 β-casein, but data from randomized controlled trials is sparse among pediatric populations. We aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of growing-up milk (GUM) containing only A2 β-casein on GI tolerance in toddlers.

METHODS

A total of 387 toddlers aged 12-36 months were recruited in Beijing, China, and randomized in a 1:1:1 ratio to consume one of two commercially available A2 GUMs (combined in the analysis as A2 GUM) or continue their current feeding regimen of conventional milk for 14 days. The primary outcome was the total Gut Comfort Score (GCS) (range: 10-60; higher values indicate greater GI distress) derived from a 10-item (score range: 1-6 per item) parent-reported questionnaire, reflecting GI tolerance.

RESULTS

The GCS (mean ± SD) was comparable between the A2 GUM and conventional milk groups on day 7 (14.7 ± 5.0 vs. 15.0 ± 6.1, p = 0.54) and day 14 (14.0 ± 4.5 vs. 14.3 ± 5.5, p = 0.51). Parents reported less constipation in those consuming A2 GUM vs. conventional milk on day 14 (1.3 ± 0.6 vs. 1.4 ± 0.9, p = 0.020). Among 124 participants with minor GI distress at baseline (GCS ≥ 17, top tertile range 17-35), GCS was significantly lower in those consuming A2 GUM on day 7 (18.2 ± 5.1 vs. 21.2 ± 6.8, p = 0.004) and day 14 (17.1 ± 5.3 vs. 19.6 ± 6.3, p = 0.026), as were individual GI symptoms (all p < 0.05). In the toddlers without GI issues at baseline (GCS < 17), a low GCS was maintained throughout the study period after switching to A2 GUM (mean values range 10-13).

CONCLUSIONS

Growing-up milk containing only A2 β-casein were well-tolerated and associated with lower parent-reported constipation scores after two weeks when compared to conventional milks. In healthy toddlers with minor GI distress, A2 GUM improved overall digestive comfort and GI-related symptoms within one week.

Mechanisms and clinical management of eosinophilic oesophagitis: an overview

Since the first description of eosinophilic oesophagitis (EoE) less than three decades ago, we have observed a striking increase in the number of patients diagnosed with EoE and the understanding of its clinical and immunopathogenic background. Nonetheless, a plethora of open questions await elucidation. In this Review, we discuss the current state of knowledge regarding the underlying mechanisms, particularly environmental factors and their interaction with genetic susceptibility. Subsequently, we discuss how to translate these factors into the diagnostic and therapeutic management of this chronic, immune-mediated disorder. Finally, we dissect the still long list of unmet needs, such as reasons for and handling refractory EoE and atypical clinical presentations. These open questions can guide us through future research steps and potentially foster reconsideration of the diagnostic guidelines of EoE.

Do non-bovine domestic animals produce A2 milk?: an in silico analysis

A2 milk is an easily digestible product since it has only A2 beta-casein. In cattle, the A1 and A2 alleles are found in the population and the A2 milk is produced from A2A2 animals. Little is known about these alleles in other domestic dairy species. The present study aims to analyze sequence of genetic material available on public databases and quantify the animals genotyped. Eight domestic species were analyzed. There is strong evidence that domestic non-bovine species only carry A2 beta-casein. The data reported here for goats already confirm it due to the large number of animals genotyped as well as buffaloes. It means that they naturally produce A2 milk and no selection must be done. Thus, the fact that A2 milk is easier to digest can be used to add value to dairy product of these species. It helps to conquer new markets. It also improves people's health and breeder profitability.

Identification of stably expressed Internal Control Genes (ICGs) for normalization of expression data in liver of C57BL/6 mice injected with beta casomorphins

In recent years, beta-casomorphin peptides (BCM7/BCM9) derived from the digestion of cow milk have drawn a lot of attention world over because of their proposed impact on human health. In order to evaluate the transcriptional modulation of target genes through RT-qPCR in response to these peptides, availability of appropriate reference or internal control genes (ICGs) will be the key. The present study was planned to identify a panel of stable ICGs in the liver tissue of C57BL/6 mice injected with BCM7/BCM9 cow milk peptides for 3 weeks. A total of ten candidate genes were evaluated as potential ICGs by assessing their expression stability using software suites; geNorm, NormFinder and BestKeeper. The suitability of the identified ICGs was validated by assessing the relative expression levels of target genes, HP and Cu/Zn SOD. Based on geNorm, PPIA and SDHA gene pair was identified to be most stably expressed in liver tissue during the animal trials. Similarly, NormFinder analysis also identified PPIA as the most stable gene. BestKeeper analysis showed crossing point SD value for all the genes in the acceptable range that is closer to 1. Overall, the study identified a panel of stable ICGs for reliable normalization of target genes expression data in mice liver tissues during BCM7/9 peptides trial.

Does a Little Difference Make a Big Difference? Bovine β-Casein A1 and A2 Variants and Human Health-An Update

For over 20 years, bovine beta-casein has been a subject of increasing scientific interest because its genetic A1 variant during gastrointestinal digestion releases opioid-like peptide β-casomorphin-7 (β-CM-7). Since β-CM-7 is involved in the dysregulation of many physiological processes, there is a growing discussion of whether the consumption of the β-casein A1 variant has an influence on human health. In the last decade, the number of papers dealing with this problem has substantially increased. The newest clinical studies on humans showed a negative effect of variant A1 on serum glutathione level, digestive well-being, cognitive performance score in children, and mood score in women. Scientific reports in this field can affect the policies of dairy cattle breeders and the milk industry, leading to the elimination of allele A1 in dairy cattle populations and promoting milk products based on milk from cows with the A2A2 genotype. More scientific proof, especially in well-designed clinical studies, is necessary to determine whether a little difference in the β-casein amino acid sequence negatively affects the health of milk consumers.

Bovine milk with variant β-casein types on immunological mediated intestinal changes and gut health of mice

Dietary proteins provide bioactive peptides, which are important for host gastrointestinal functions. We hypothesized that A2-type β-casein could provide gastrointestinal benefits and improve the immune and gut health. This study was conducted to investigate those effects and mechanisms. Thirty BALB-c mice (3–4 weeks old) were fed with either a control diet (control), a diet supplemented with bovine milk containing A1 and A2 type β-casein (A1A2, contains 63.62% A2 β-casein of total β-casein) or a diet containing A2 type β-casein (A2A2, contains 95.96% A2 β-casein of total β-casein) (10 ml/kg body weight) for 4 weeks. Immunoglobulin and inflammation factors were measured in serum, and histological variations were measured in duodenal and ileum, and stool 16S rRNA and short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) contents were measured in fecal samples. Results showed that consumption of A2-type β-casein milk could improve proximal small intestine villus and crypt morphology (p < 0.05), increase IgG and IgE responses, and modulate the composition and diversity of gut microbiota by increase the relative abundance of phylum Proteobacteria, class Clostridia, family Ruminococcaceae and species Lactobacillus animalis (p < 0.05). There were also significant associations between gut microbes, immune response, and SCFAs, especially isobutyric acid (p < 0.05), which may potentially regulated gastrointestinal benefits. Moreover, intake of A2-type β-casein milk had no impact on inflammation. These findings explained potential benefits of consumption of A2-type β-casein milk on host immune system and gut health outcomes, and provide insights to the future application of nutritional modulation.

Characterization of the genetic polymorphism linked to the β-casein A1/A2 alleles using different molecular and biochemical methods

The 2 major subvariants of β-casein (A1 and A2), coded by CSN2 gene, have received great interest in the last decade both from the scientific community and the dairy sector due to their influence on milk quality. The consumption of the A1 variant, compared with the A2 variant, has a potential negative effect on human health after its digestion but, at the same time, its presence improves the milk technological properties. The aim of the present study was to compare the best method in terms of time required, costs, and technical engagement for the identification of β-casein A1 and A2 variants (homozygous and heterozygous animals) in milk to offer a reliable service for large-scale screening studies. Two allele-specific PCR procedures, namely RFLP-PCR and amplification refractory mutation system (ARMS-PCR), and one biochemical technique (HPLC) were evaluated and validated through sequencing. Manual and automated DNA extraction protocols from milk somatic cells were also compared. Automated DNA extraction provided better yield and purity. Chromatographic analysis was the most informative and the cheapest method but unsuitable for large-scale studies due to lengthy procedures (45 min per sample). Both allele-specific PCR techniques proved to be fast and reliable for differentiating between A1 and A2 variants but more expensive than HPLC analysis. Specifically, RFLP-PCR was the most expensive and labor-demanding among the evaluated techniques, whereas ARMS-PCR was the fastest while also requiring less technical expertise. Overall, automated extraction of DNA from milk matrix combined with ARMS-PCR is the most suitable technique to provide genetic characterization of the CSN2 gene on a large scale.

An anti-inflammatory and low fermentable oligo, di, and monosaccharides and polyols diet improved patient reported outcomes in fibromyalgia: A randomized controlled trial

Background

Fibromyalgia (FM) has been associated with dysbiosis and low-grade inflammation. Studies have reported that diet influences clinical features in FM.

Objective

To evaluate the effect of an anti-inflammatory and low fermentable oligo, di, and monosaccharides and polyols (FODMAP) diet on clinical outcomes of patients with FM.

Methods

This two arms Randomized Controlled Trial (NCT04007705) included 46 female patients with FM. The intervention group (n = 22) adopted an anti-inflammatory diet for 3 months, excluding gluten, dairy, added sugar, and ultra-processed foods, along with a low FODMAPs diet in the first month. The control group (n = 24) followed general healthy eating recommendations. Both diets were applied by a certified dietitian. Before and after the intervention, participants were assessed regarding pain, fatigue, gastrointestinal symptoms, quality of sleep, and quality of life, through the Revised Fibromyalgia Impact Questionnaire (FIQR), Visual Analogue Pain Scale (VAS), Visual Analog Scale from gastrointestinal symptoms (VAS GI), Brief Pain Inventory (BPI), Pittsburg Sleep Quality Index (PSQI), Fatigue Severity Survey (FSS), and The Short Form Health Survey (SF-36). A blood sample was collected and high-sensitive C-Reactive Protein and Erythrocyte Sedimentation Rate were quantified. Paired Samples t-test/Wilcoxon and independent samples t-test/Mann−Whitney were used to compare variables between groups.

Results

After intervention, there was an improvement in intervention group scores of FIQR (p = 0.001), VAS (p = 0.002), BPI (p = 0.011), FSS (p = 0.042), VAS_GI (p = 0.002), PSQI (p = 0.048), and SF36 (p = 0.045) compared to control group. Inflammatory biomarkers (hs-CRP, ESR) did not change in both groups. The intervention was beneficial in the intervention group, regardless of age, disease duration, body mass index variation, and body fat change between baseline and post-intervention.

Conclusion

An anti-inflammatory and low-FODMAP diet improved clinical features in patients with FM and may be useful as a complement to pharmacological therapy.

Clinical Trial Registration

[https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04007705], identifier [NCT04007705].

A2 Milk: New Perspectives for Food Technology and Human Health

Although milk consumption is increasing worldwide, in some geographical regions, its consumption has persistently declined in recent decades. This fact, together with the increase in milk production prices, has caused both milk producers and the dairy industry to be immersed in a major crisis. Some possible solutions to this problem are to get people who do not currently consume milk to start drinking it again, or to market milk and dairy products with a higher added value. In this context, a type of milk called A2 has recently received attention from the industry. This type of milk, characterized by a difference in an amino acid at position 67 of the β-casein polypeptide chain, releases much smaller amounts of bioactive opioid peptide β-casomorphin 7 upon digestion, which has been linked to harmful effects on human health. Additionally, A2 milk has been attributed worse technological properties in the production of some dairy products. Thus, doubts exist about the convenience for the dairy industry to bet on this product. The aim of this review is to provide an update on the effects on human health of A2 milk, as well as its different technological properties to produce dairy products.

Demographic pattern of A1/A2 beta casein variants indicates conservation of A2 type haplotype across native cattle breeds (Bos indicus) of India

Genetic variations of the beta casein gene hold importance because of their probable association with human health. Comparative sequence analysis of β-casein gene across Indian native, crossbred and exotic breeds in India revealed 15 SNPs and 4 INDELs corresponding to 14 haplotypes. The frequency of A2 type haplotype was maximum (0.941) across all Indian native breeds. Among the 15 variants reported for taurine breeds, only three (A1, A2 and B) were observed in analysed populations. Allelic profiling of A1/A2 β-casein variants in ~ 4000 animals belonging to three cattle types and breeding bulls also revealed the predominance of A2 allele (0.95) in Indian cattle. The high proportion of A2 allele/haplotype indicates that Indian native cattle are the best suited to meet the demands for A2 milk globally. However, a higher percentage of heterozygous genotype (A1A2) in breeding bulls warrants the need to screen sire lines so as to drift the herd towards A2.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13205-022-03232-0.

Worldwide Research Trends on Milk Containing Only A2 β-Casein: A Bibliometric Study

Simple Summary

A1 β-casein has been correlated with adverse health outcomes, and, as a consequence, milk containing only A2 β-casein has emerged on the market. There has been a relevant increase in publications in this area since 2010. Food Science Technology and Agriculture were the main research areas of this topic. The term β-casomorphin was the most frequently used. The USA, New Zealand, and Australia were the most productive countries, though the most productive research institutions were, in absolute terms, from India, France, and Germany. The majority of the most cited studies that refer to A2 β-casein and health were reviews, and a few clinical trials have also been published.

Abstract

The protein fraction of β-casein may play a key role in the manifestation of a new intolerance: milk protein intolerance. The most common forms of β-casein among dairy cattle breeds are A1 and A2 β-casein. During gastrointestinal digestion of A1 β-casein, an opioid called peptide β-casomorphin-7 (BCM-7) is more frequently released, which can lead to adverse health outcomes. For that reason, novel products labelled as “A2 milk” or “A1-free dairy products” have appeared on the market. In this context, a bibliometric analysis on A2 β-casein research was carried out through the Web of Science (WoS) database. The main objective of this work was to provide an overview of the state of the art in the field of β-casein A2 by analyzing the number of publications per year, trends in thematic content, the most frequently used terms, and the most important institutions and countries in the field. This bibliometric study showed that a greater effort is needed to determine the possible implications of this novel product for human health and the market.

Development of a Microsphere-Based Immunoassay Authenticating A2 Milk and Species Purity in the Milk Production Chain

Processed milk and milk products produced from bovine milk, commonly contain β-casein A1 (βCA1) and β-casein A2 (βCA2). Since the presence of βCA1 is linked to milk intolerance and digestion problems, A2A2 milk, which only contains βCA2, is proposed as a healthier alternative. To support this health claim, the purity of A2A2-milk has to be guaranteed. In the presented study, a multiplex immunoassay, able to distinguish between βCA2 and βCA1, was developed and real-life applicability was shown on raw milk samples from genotyped A1A1, A1A2 and A2A2 cows. Because of its ability to discriminate between βCA2 and βCA1, this newly developed method was able to detect the addition of common bovine A1A2 milk to A2A2 milk, as low as 1%. Besides the detection of A2A2 milk purity, the developed assay can also be implemented as a rapid phenotyping method at dairy farms to replace the more invasive DNA-based screening. Additionally, the developed method was capable of detecting the addition of common bovine milk up to 1% in sheep, goat, buffalo, horse and donkey milk, which conforms to EU recommendations. In conclusion, a newly developed multiplex method capable of reliably detecting the dilution of A2A2 milk of multiple species, with common bovine milk up to 1%, is presented.

A2 Milk and BCM-7 Peptide as Emerging Parameters of Milk Quality

Beta-casein makes up about 30% of the total protein contained in milk and can be present in cows' milk in two distinct forms (A1 or A2) or as a combination of the two. The only difference between these two variants of β-casein (β-CN) is a single amino acid substitution. This results in a different behavior of the protein upon enzymatic cleavage, following human consumption or due to microbial action. In most of the commercially available milk containing A1 or A1/A2 β-CN variants, the β-casomorphin-7 peptide (BCM-7) is released upon digestion and during cheese manufacturing/ripening, while this does not happen with A2 milk. BCM-7 is a known μ-opioid receptor agonist that may influence the gastro-intestinal physiology directly and may also exert effects elsewhere in the body, such as on the cardiovascular, neurological and endocrine systems. The present article is aimed at a revision of prior review papers on the topic, with a focus on the impact of ingestion of A1 β-CN milk and A2 β-CN milk on any health-related outcomes and on the impact of A1 or A2 β-CN variant on technological properties of cows' milk. When systematic reviews were considered, it was possible to conclude that A2 β-CN exerts beneficial effects at the gastrointestinal level compared with A1 β-CN, but that there is no evidence of A1 β-CN having negative effects on human health. Physicochemical differences among cows' milk containing either β-CN A2 or β-CN A1 and their effects on technological properties are discussed.

A Survey to Identify the Current Management of Cow’s Milk Disorders and the Role of Goat Milk-Based Formulas in the Middle East and North Africa Region

Background: Cow’s milk allergy (CMA) and cow’s milk intolerance (CMI) are the major cow’s milk disorders observed in infants and young children. This study investigates, for the first time, physician knowledge regarding CMA and CMI prevalence, diagnosis, and management in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region. In addition, we explore the role of goat milk-based formula as an alternative in infants suffering from CMI. Method: This cross-sectional survey was conducted from December 2020 to February 2021. A convenience sample of 2500 MENA-based physicians received the questionnaire, developed by a working group of pediatric experts. Results: 1868 physicians completed the questionnaire, including pediatric specialists (80.8%), training physicians (0.2%), dermatologists (0.1%), family/general physicians (12.9%), neonatologists (3.6%), neurosurgeons (0.2%), allergy nurse specialists (0.3%), pharmacists (2.1%), and public health workers (0.1%). Differentiation between CMA and CMI was recognized by the majority of respondents (80.7%), for which the majority of respondents (35.4%) identified that the elimination and challenge test was the best test to differentiate CMA from CMI, whereas 30.7% and 5.4% preferred the immunoglobulin E (IgE) test and skin prick test, respectively. In addition, 28.5% of respondents reported that there is no confirmatory test to differentiate CMA from CMI. The majority of respondents (47.3%) reported that amino acid-based formula (AAF)/ extensively hydrolyzed formula (EHF) is the cornerstone for the management of CMA. However, most respondents (33.7%) reported that lactose avoidance was best for the management of CMI. Overall, 65% of the respondents were aware of nutritionally adapted goat’s milk formula as an alternative to cow’s milk products and 37% would recommend its routine use in infants (≤2 years of age). Conclusion: The results of this survey demonstrate that the majority of physicians are aware of the underlying pathophysiology and management of CMA and CMI. However, a significant proportion of physicians do not follow the clinical guidelines concerning CMA/CMI diagnosis and management. Notably, this survey identified that goat’s milk formulas may offer a suitable alternative to AAF/EHF in infants with CMI as they contain β-casein protein which is easily digestible. In addition, goat’s milk formulas contain higher levels of oligosaccharides and medium-chained fatty acids compared with standard cow’s milk formulas, yet further clinical trials are warranted to support the inclusion of goat’s milk formulas in clinical guidelines.

A1- and A2 beta-casein on health-related outcomes: a scoping review of animal studies

PURPOSE

Food-derived bioactive peptides may influence important physiological functions. An important example is beta-casomorphins, which are opioid peptides derived from A1 beta-casein in bovine milk and have been associated to be risk factors for non-communicable diseases in humans. A1 and A2 beta-casein are different with respect to the release of bioactive peptides, in particular BCM-7. However, evidence from human studies is limited and could be complemented with evidence derived from animal studies. We conducted a scoping review to identify animal studies investigating the effects of A1 beta-casein or BCM-7 compared to A2 beta-casein or any other intervention on health-related outcomes.

METHODS

We systematically searched for relevant studies in two electronic databases (Medline, Embase; last search performed March 2020). Two reviewers independently undertook study selection and data extraction of included references. Results were summarized tabularly and narratively.

RESULTS

We included 42 studies investigating various animal models, including rats, mice, rabbits, and dogs. Six studies investigated health-related outcomes of A1- vs. A2 milk, while most studies (n = 36) reported on physiological properties (e.g., analgesic effect) of BCM-7 as an opioid peptide. Included studies were extremely heterogeneous in terms of the study population, type of intervention and dose, and type of outcome measures.

CONCLUSIONS

Only a few studies comparing the effects of A1- and A2 milk were identified. More studies addressing this research question in animal models are needed to provide essential information to inform research gaps. Results from future studies could eventually complement research for humans, particularly when the body of evidence remains uncertain as is the case in the A1- and A2 milk debate.

Bioactive compounds, nutritional profile and health benefits of colostrum: a review

Bovine colostrum is defined as first milk by milching animals responsible for providing the innate immunity to the neonatal and possess many immunoglobulins for preventing the calf from diseases. Colostrum consist of many bioactive compounds like proteins, enzymes, growth factors, immunoglobulins and nucleotides that provides several benefits to human health. Numerous clinical and pre-clinical studies have demonstrated the therapeutic benefits of the bovine colostrum. This review focusses on bioactive compounds, their health benefits, potential of colostrum for developing several health foods and prevention of respiratory and gastrointestinal tract disorders. Processing can also be done to extend shelf-life and extraction of bioactive constituents either as encapsulated or as extracts. The products derived from bovine colostrum are high-end supplements possessing high nutraceutical value.

Cow products: boon to human health and food security

The world population exceeded 7.8 billion people in 2020 and is predicted to reach 9.9 billion by 2050 as per the current increasing rate of 25%. In view of this, ensuring human health and food security has become an issue of key importance to countries with different degrees of economic development. At the same time, the livestock sector plays a strategic role in improving the economic, environmental, and sociocultural stewardship of any nation. The cow (Bos indicus) has held a distinctive role in human history ever since its domestication because of its valued harvests like dairy products (milk, clarified butter, yogurt, curd, and buttermilk) excreta like dung and urine. These products, except dung, provide all the necessary energy and nutrients to ensure the proper growth and development of the human. They are the source of many bioactive substances, which possess immense pharmacotherapeutic action against various physiological, metabolic and infectious disorders, including COVID-19. The use of urine and dung can be considered a low-cost agricultural practice for farmers and has been extensively used in modern agriculture practices to ensure food security via soil fertility, plant pathogens, and pests. Cow urine mediated synthesized nanomaterial also display distinctive characteristics and novel applications in various fields of science and technology. Thus, this paper aims to provide a comprehensive overview of cow products, describing their biochemical constituents, bioactivities, and their utilization in the area ranging from human welfare to agriculture sustainability. An attempt is also made to present possible applications in bioenergy production and pollution reduction.

The Moo'D Study: protocol for a randomised controlled trial of A2 beta-casein only versus conventional dairy products in women with low mood

Background

Beta-casein is a major protein in cow’s milk, of which A1 and A2 are the most frequent variants. Recent evidence implicates A1 beta-casein consumption in mechanisms that are of potential importance to mental health, yet its possible effects on psychological endpoints remains unknown. The primary aim of the study is to evaluate the comparative effects of consumption of dairy products containing A2 beta-casein versus conventional dairy (i.e. containing both A1 and A2 beta-casein) on symptoms of psychological distress in women with low mood.

Methods

‘The Moo’D Study’ is a 16-week, superiority, 1:1 parallel group, triple-blinded, randomised controlled trial. Ninety women with low mood (Patient Health Questionnaire score ≥ 5) will be randomised to consume either A2 beta-casein only or conventional dairy products. The primary outcome, symptoms of psychological distress, will be measured by the 21-item Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale. Secondary outcomes will include symptoms of depression, anxiety and stress, severity of low mood, cognition, gut microbiota composition, gut symptomatology, markers of immune function, gut inflammation, systemic metabolites, endothelial integrity and oxidative stress, body composition, perceived wellbeing, sleep, quality of life, resource use and cost-effectiveness.

Discussion

This study will advance our understanding of the possible impact of milk proteins on psychological distress in women as well as elucidate mechanisms underpinning any association. Given dairy products form a substantial component of traditional and Western diets, the implications of these findings are likely to be of clinical and public health importance.

Trial registration

The trial protocol has been prospectively registered with the Australia and New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry, ACTRN12618002023235. Registered on 17 December 2018.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13063-021-05812-6.

Complementary Feeding and Iron Status: "The Unbearable Lightness of Being" Infants

The complementary feeding (CF) period that takes place between 6 and 24 months of age is of key importance for nutritional and developmental reasons during the transition from exclusively feeding on milk to family meals. In 2021, a multidisciplinary panel of experts from four Italian scientific pediatric societies elaborated a consensus document on CF, focusing in particular on healthy term infants. The aim was to provide healthcare providers with useful guidelines for clinical practice. Complementary feeding is also the time window when iron deficiency (ID) and iron deficiency anemia (IDA) are most prevalent. Thus, it is appropriate to address the problem of iron deficiency through nutritional interventions. Adequate iron intake during the first two years is critical since rapid growth in that period increases iron requirements per kilogram more than at any other developmental stage. Complementary foods should be introduced at around six months of age, taking into account infant iron status.

First DNA Sequencing in Beninese Indigenous Cattle Breeds Captures New Milk Protein Variants

This study investigated polymorphisms in the milk protein genes CSN1S1, CSN2, CSN1S2, CSN3, LALBA, and LGB, and casein haplotypes in Beninese indigenous cattle. Considering 67 animals, DNA sequencing of the genes' exons, flanking regions and parts of the 5'-upstream regions identified 1058 genetic variants including 731 previously unknown. In addition, four novel milk protein variants were detected, including CSN3K (p.Ala66Val), LALBAF (p.Arg58Trp), LGBB1 (p.Ala134Val) and LGBK (p.Thr92Asnfs*13). CSN3K is caused by a novel SNP (BTA6:85656526C>T, exon 4) whereas LALBAF and LGBB1 are due to rs714688595C>T (exon 1) and rs109625649C>T (exon 4), respectively. Regarding LGBK, a frameshift insertion of one adenine residue at BTA11:103257980 (exon 3) induces a premature translation termination resulting in a 46% reduction of the reference protein sequence. The casein polymorphisms formed five main CSN1S1-CSN2-CSN1S2-CSN3 haplotypes including B-A1-A-B, B-A1-A-A and C-A2-A-B which are predominant in the investigated cattle breeds. Moreover, in silico analyses of polymorphisms within the 5'- and 3'- untranslated regions of all six milk proteins revealed effects on microRNA and transcription factor binding sites. This study suggests a large genetic variation of milk protein genes in Beninese cattle, which should be investigated in further studies for their effects on milk production, including quality and yield traits.

Effect of Protein Genotypes on Physicochemical Properties and Protein Functionality of Bovine Milk: A Review

Milk protein comprises caseins (CNs) and whey proteins, each of which has different genetic variants. Several studies have reported the frequencies of these genetic variants and the effects of variants on milk physicochemical properties and functionality. For example, the C variant and the BC haplotype of αS1-casein (αS1-CN), β-casein (β-CN) B and A1 variants, and κ-casein (κ-CN) B variant, are favourable for rennet coagulation, as well as the B variant of β-lactoglobulin (β-lg). κ-CN is reported to be the only protein influencing acid gel formation, with the AA variant contributing to a firmer acid curd. For heat stability, κ-CN B variant improves the heat resistance of milk at natural pH, and the order of heat stability between phenotypes is BB > AB > AA. The A2 variant of β-CN is more efficient in emulsion formation, but the emulsion stability is lower than the A1 and B variants. Foaming properties of milk with β-lg variant B are better than A, but the differences between β-CN A1 and A2 variants are controversial. Genetic variants of milk proteins also influence milk yield, composition, quality and processability; thus, study of such relationships offers guidance for the selection of targeted genetic variants.

Casomorphins and Gliadorphins Have Diverse Systemic Effects Spanning Gut, Brain and Internal Organs

Food-derived opioid peptides include digestive products derived from cereal and dairy diets. If these opioid peptides breach the intestinal barrier, typically linked to permeability and constrained biosynthesis of dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP4), they can attach to opioid receptors. The widespread presence of opioid receptors spanning gut, brain, and internal organs is fundamental to the diverse and systemic effects of food-derived opioids, with effects being evidential across many health conditions. However, manifestation delays following low-intensity long-term exposure create major challenges for clinical trials. Accordingly, it has been easiest to demonstrate causal relationships in digestion-based research where some impacts occur rapidly. Within this environment, the role of the microbiome is evidential but challenging to further elucidate, with microbiome effects ranging across gut-condition indicators and modulators, and potentially as systemic causal factors. Elucidation requires a systemic framework that acknowledges that public-health effects of food-derived opioids are complex with varying genetic susceptibility and confounding factors, together with system-wide interactions and feedbacks. The specific role of the microbiome within this puzzle remains a medical frontier. The easiest albeit challenging nutritional strategy to modify risk is reduced intake of foods containing embedded opioids. In future, constituent modification within specific foods to reduce embedded opioids may become feasible.