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Gong YM, Wei XF, Zheng YY, Li Y, Yu Q, Li PF, Zhu B. Combining Phage Display Technology with In Silico-Designed Epitope Vaccine to Elicit Robust Antibody Responses against Emerging Pathogen Tilapia Lake Virus. J Virol 2023; 97:e0005023. [PMID: 36975794 PMCID: PMC10134809 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00050-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2023] [Accepted: 02/27/2023] [Indexed: 03/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Antigen epitope identification is a critical step in the vaccine development process and is a momentous cornerstone for the development of safe and efficient epitope vaccines. In particular, vaccine design is difficult when the function of the protein encoded by the pathogen is unknown. The genome of Tilapia lake virus (TiLV), an emerging virus from fish, encodes protein functions that have not been elucidated, resulting in a lag and uncertainty in vaccine development. Here, we propose a feasible strategy for emerging viral disease epitope vaccine development using TiLV. We determined the targets of specific antibodies in serum from a TiLV survivor by panning a Ph.D.-12 phage library, and we identified a mimotope, TYTTRMHITLPI, referred to as Pep3, which provided protection against TiLV after prime-boost vaccination; its immune protection rate was 57.6%. Based on amino acid sequence alignment and structure analysis of the target protein from TiLV, we further identified a protective antigenic site (399TYTTRNEDFLPT410) which is located on TiLV segment 1 (S1). The epitope vaccine with keyhole limpet hemocyanin (KLH-S1399-410) corresponding to the mimotope induced the tilapia to produce a durable and effective antibody response after immunization, and the antibody depletion test confirmed that the specific antibody against S1399-410 was necessary to neutralize TiLV. Surprisingly, the challenge studies in tilapia demonstrated that the epitope vaccine elicited a robust protective response against TiLV challenge, and the survival rate reached 81.8%. In conclusion, this study revealed a concept for screening antigen epitopes of emerging viral diseases, providing promising approaches for development and evaluation of protective epitope vaccines against viral diseases. IMPORTANCE Antigen epitope determination is an important cornerstone for developing efficient vaccines. In this study, we attempted to explore a novel approach for epitope discovery of TiLV, which is a new virus in fish. We investigated the immunogenicity and protective efficacy of all antigenic sites (mimotopes) identified in serum of primary TiLV survivors by using a Ph.D.-12 phage library. We also recognized and identified the natural epitope of TiLV by bioinformatics, evaluated the immunogenicity and protective effect of this antigenic site by immunization, and revealed 2 amino acid residues that play important roles in this epitope. Both Pep3 and S1399-410 (a natural epitope identified by Pep3) elicited antibody titers in tilapia, but S1399-410 was more prominent. Antibody depletion studies showed that anti-S1399-410-specific antibodies were essential for neutralizing TiLV. Our study demonstrated a model for combining experimental and computational screens to identify antigen epitopes, which is attractive for epitope-based vaccine development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Ming Gong
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi, China
| | - Xue-Feng Wei
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi, China
| | - Yu-Ying Zheng
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi, China
| | - Yang Li
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi, China
| | - Qing Yu
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Aquatic Biotechnology and Modern Ecological Aquaculture, Guangxi Academy of Marine Sciences, Guangxi Academy of Sciences, Nanning, Guangxi, China
| | - Peng-Fei Li
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Aquatic Biotechnology and Modern Ecological Aquaculture, Guangxi Academy of Marine Sciences, Guangxi Academy of Sciences, Nanning, Guangxi, China
| | - Bin Zhu
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi, China
- Key Laboratory of Livestock Biology, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi, China
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Zhehui Q, Xiwen Z, Xiaoqiu G, Zhuoyan L, Wenjing Y, Shuoshuo L, Wen Z, Fengchao J, Shuhai H, Shaofang L. Self-Assembled Nanoparticles with E Protein Domains I and II of Duck Tembusu Virus Can Induce a More Comprehensive Immune Response Against the Duck Tembusu Virus Challenge. Avian Dis 2023; 67:49-56. [PMID: 37140111 DOI: 10.1637/aviandiseases-d-22-00086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2022] [Accepted: 01/04/2023] [Indexed: 03/11/2023]
Abstract
Duck Tembusu virus (DTMUV) is a pathogenic flavivirus that causes a substantial drop in egg production and severe neurological disorders in domestic waterfowl. Self-assembled ferritin nanoparticles with E protein domains I and II (EDI-II) of DTMUV (EDI-II-RFNp) were prepared, and its morphology was observed. Two independent experiments were conducted. First, Cherry Valley ducks aged 14 days were vaccinated with EDI-II-RFNp, EDI-II, and phosphate buffered solution (PBS, pH 7.4), and special and virus neutralization (VN) antibodies, interleukin 4 (IL-4) and interferon gamma (IFN-γ) in serum, and lymphocyte proliferation were detected. Second, the vaccinated ducks with EDI-II-RFNp, EDI-II, and PBS were injected with virulent DTMUV, clinical signs at 7 days postinfection (dpi) were observed, and mRNA levels of DTMUV in the lungs, liver, and brain at 7 and 14 dpi were detected. The results showed near-spherical nanoparticles EDI-II-RFNp with a 16.46 ± 4.70 nm diameters. The levels of specific and VN antibodies, IL-4 and IFN-γ, and lymphocyte proliferation in the EDI-II-RFNp group were significantly higher than those in the EDI-II and PBS groups. In the DTMUV challenge test, clinical signs and mRNA levels in tissue were used to evaluate protection of EDI-II-RFNp. EDI-II-RFNp-vaccinated ducks showed milder clinical signs and lower levels of DTMUV RNA in the lungs, liver, and brain. These results indicate that EDI-II-RFNp effectively protects ducks against the DTMUV challenge and could be a vaccine candidate to provide an effective and safe method for preventing and controlling DTMUV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qu Zhehui
- College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Xinyang Agriculture and Forestry University, Xinyang, Henan 464000, PR China
| | - Zhang Xiwen
- College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Xinyang Agriculture and Forestry University, Xinyang, Henan 464000, PR China
| | - Guo Xiaoqiu
- College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Xinyang Agriculture and Forestry University, Xinyang, Henan 464000, PR China
| | - Li Zhuoyan
- College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Xinyang Agriculture and Forestry University, Xinyang, Henan 464000, PR China
| | - Yu Wenjing
- College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Xinyang Agriculture and Forestry University, Xinyang, Henan 464000, PR China
| | - Lv Shuoshuo
- College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Xinyang Agriculture and Forestry University, Xinyang, Henan 464000, PR China
| | - Zhang Wen
- College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Xinyang Agriculture and Forestry University, Xinyang, Henan 464000, PR China
| | - Jiao Fengchao
- College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Xinyang Agriculture and Forestry University, Xinyang, Henan 464000, PR China
| | - He Shuhai
- College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Xinyang Agriculture and Forestry University, Xinyang, Henan 464000, PR China
| | - Lu Shaofang
- College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Xinyang Agriculture and Forestry University, Xinyang, Henan 464000, PR China
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Yang B, Meng R, Feng C, Huang J, Li Q, Wang X, Zhang D. An Antibody Neutralization Determinant on Domain III and the First α-Helical Domain in the Stem-Anchor Region of Tembusu Virus Envelope Protein. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2022; 209:684-695. [DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.2200226] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2022] [Accepted: 06/06/2022] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Abstract
Previous studies identified three neutralizing epitopes on domains I, II, and III of the Tembusu virus (TMUV) envelope (E). More evidence is needed to understand the molecular basis of Ab-mediated neutralization and protection against TMUV. In this study, we observed a neutralizing mAb, 6C8, that neutralized TMUV infection primarily by inhibiting cell attachment. In immunofluorescence assays, 6C8 recognized the premembrane and E proteins coexpressed in HEK-293T cells, but failed to react with premembrane or E expressed individually. Epitope mapping identified nine E protein residues positioned on BC/EF loops and F/G strands in domain III and the first α-helical domain in the stem region. Further investigation with mutant viruses showed that 6C8 pressure resulted in mutations at residues 330 of BC loop and 409 of the first α-helical domain, although 6C8 only exhibited a moderate neutralizing activity in BHK-21 cells and a weak protective activity in BALB/c mice and Shaoxing duck models. Mutations A330S and T409M conferred high- and low-level 6C8 resistance, respectively, whereas the combination of A330S and T409M mutations conferred moderate-level 6C8 resistance. As a result, a quasispecies comprising three groups of antigenic variants appeared in BHK-21 cell–derived viral stocks after repeated passages of TMUV strain Y in the presence of 6C8 treatment. Taken together, these findings have raised a concern about Ab-induced antigenic variations in vivo, and they have revealed information concerning the conformational structure of the 6C8 epitope and its role in constraint on antigenic variations. The present work contributes to a better understanding of the complexity of the TMUV immunogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Baolin Yang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology of the Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Runze Meng
- Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology of the Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Chonglun Feng
- Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology of the Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Jingjing Huang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology of the Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Qiong Li
- Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology of the Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Xiaoyan Wang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology of the Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Dabing Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology of the Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
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Zhang L, Li Z, Tang Z, Han L, Wei X, Xie X, Ren S, Meng K, Liu Y, Xu M, Qi L, Chen H, Wu J, Zhang N. Efficient Identification of Tembusu Virus CTL Epitopes in Inbred HBW/B4 Ducks Using a Novel MHC Class I-Restricted Epitope Screening Scheme. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2022; 209:145-156. [PMID: 35623661 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.2100382] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2021] [Accepted: 04/28/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The identification of MHC class I-restricted CTL epitopes in certain species, particularly nonmammals, remains a challenge. In this study, we developed a four-step identification scheme and confirmed its efficiency by identifying the Anpl-UAA*76-restricted CTL epitopes of Tembusu virus (TMUV) in inbred haplotype ducks HBW/B4. First, the peptide binding motif of Anpl-UAA*76 was determined by random peptide library in de novo liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry, a novel nonbiased, data-independent acquisition method that we previously established. Second, a total of 38 TMUV peptides matching the motif were screened from the viral proteome, among which 11 peptides were conserved across the different TMUV strains. Third, the conserved TMUV peptides were refolded in vitro with Anpl-UAA*76 and Anpl-β2-microglobulin to verify the results from the previous two steps. To clarify the structural basis of the obtained motif, we resolved the crystal structure of Anpl-UAA*76 with the TMUV NS3 peptide LRKRQLTVL and found that Asp34 is critical for the preferential binding of the B pocket to bind the second residue to arginine as an anchor residue. Fourth, the immunogenicity of the conserved TMUV peptides was tested in vivo using specific pathogen-free HBW/B4 ducks immunized with the attenuated TMUV vaccine. All 11 conserved TMUV epitopes could bind stably to Anpl-UAA*76 in vitro and stimulate the secretion of IFN-γ and lymphocyte proliferation, and three conserved and one nonconserved peptides were selected to evaluate the CTL responses in vivo by flow cytometry and their tetramers. We believe that this new scheme could improve the identification of MHC class I-restricted CTL epitopes, and our data provide a foundation for further study on duck anti-TMUV CTL immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lin Zhang
- Shandong Key Laboratory of Disease Control and Breeding, Institute of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Shandong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Jinan, China
| | - Zhuolin Li
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Ziche Tang
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Lingxia Han
- Division of Laboratory Animal and Comparative Medicine, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, Heilongjiang, China
| | - Xiaohui Wei
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Xiaoli Xie
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Shuaimeng Ren
- Shandong Key Laboratory of Disease Control and Breeding, Institute of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Shandong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Jinan, China
- College of Life Sciences and Food Engineering, Hebei University of Engineering, Handan, Hebei, China
| | - Kai Meng
- Shandong Key Laboratory of Poultry Diseases Diagnosis and Immunology, Institute of Poultry, Shandong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Jinan, China
| | - Yueyue Liu
- Shandong Key Laboratory of Poultry Diseases Diagnosis and Immunology, Institute of Poultry, Shandong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Jinan, China
| | - Minli Xu
- Shandong Key Laboratory of Disease Control and Breeding, Institute of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Shandong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Jinan, China
| | - Lihong Qi
- Shandong Key Laboratory of Poultry Diseases Diagnosis and Immunology, Institute of Poultry, Shandong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Jinan, China
| | - Hongyan Chen
- Division of Laboratory Animal and Comparative Medicine, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, Heilongjiang, China
| | - Jiaqiang Wu
- Shandong Key Laboratory of Disease Control and Breeding, Institute of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Shandong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Jinan, China;
- Shandong Key Laboratory of Poultry Diseases Diagnosis and Immunology, Institute of Poultry, Shandong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Jinan, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Resistant Biology of Shandong, College of Life Sciences, Shandong Normal University, Jinan, China; and
| | - Nianzhi Zhang
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China;
- Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology of the Ministry of Agriculture, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
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Shoushtari M, Mafakher L, Rahmati S, Salehi-Vaziri M, Arashkia A, Roohvand F, Teimoori-Toolabi L, Azadmanesh K. Designing vaccine candidates against dengue virus by in silico studies on structural and nonstructural domains. Mol Cell Probes 2022; 63:101818. [DOI: 10.1016/j.mcp.2022.101818] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2022] [Revised: 04/06/2022] [Accepted: 04/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Novel reverse genetics of genotype I and III Japanese encephalitis viruses assembled through transformation associated recombination in yeast: The reporter viruses expressing a green fluorescent protein for the antiviral screening assay. Antiviral Res 2022; 197:105233. [DOI: 10.1016/j.antiviral.2021.105233] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2021] [Revised: 12/22/2021] [Accepted: 12/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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New Insights into the Biology of the Emerging Tembusu Virus. Pathogens 2021; 10:pathogens10081010. [PMID: 34451474 PMCID: PMC8398659 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens10081010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2021] [Revised: 08/05/2021] [Accepted: 08/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Reported for the first time in 1955 in Malaysia, Tembusu virus (TMUV) remained, for a long time, in the shadow of flaviviruses with human health importance such as dengue virus or Japanese encephalitis virus. However, since 2010 and the first large epidemic in duck farms in China, the threat of its emergence on a large scale in Asia or even its spillover into the human population is becoming more and more significant. This review aims to report current knowledge on TMUV from viral particle organization to the development of specific vaccines and therapeutics, with a particular focus on host-virus interactions.
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Gong H, Fan Y, Zhou P, Li Y, Hu X, Jin H, Luo R. Identification of a linear epitope within domain I of Duck Tembusu virus envelope protein using a novel neutralizing monoclonal antibody. DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2021; 115:103906. [PMID: 33127560 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2020.103906] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2020] [Revised: 10/20/2020] [Accepted: 10/21/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Duck Tembusu virus (DTMUV) is a newly emerging pathogenic flavivirus that caused severe egg drop syndrome in laying ducks in China since 2010, leading to massive economic losses to the duck industry. Although the DTMUV E protein is considered to be critical in inducing the protective immune response, the functional epitopes within this protein remain largely unknown. In the present study, we isolated a DTMUV neutralizing monoclonal antibody (mAb) 3B8 from DTMUV E-immunized mice. Epitope mapping showed that mAb 3B8 recognized a novel linear epitope FSCLGMQNR located on the extreme N-terminal of the domain I (EDI) of E protein. Sequence alignment and Western blot analyses showed that the epitope is greatly conserved with high DTMUV-specificity. Moreover, upon cloning the heavy and light chain variable region sequences of mAb 3B8, we prepared the single-chain variable antibody fragment (scFv) 3B8 by connecting the two chains via a flexible peptide linker. The recombinant scFv 3B8 exhibited antiviral activity against DTMUV infection in vitro and in vivo. Our results provide valuable implications for the development of DTMUV vaccines and therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huimin Gong
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, 430070, China; Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine in Hubei Province, The Cooperative Innovation Center for Sustainable Pig Production, Wuhan, Hubei, 430070, China
| | - Yufang Fan
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, 430070, China; Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine in Hubei Province, The Cooperative Innovation Center for Sustainable Pig Production, Wuhan, Hubei, 430070, China
| | - Peng Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, 430070, China; Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine in Hubei Province, The Cooperative Innovation Center for Sustainable Pig Production, Wuhan, Hubei, 430070, China
| | - Yaqian Li
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, 430070, China; Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine in Hubei Province, The Cooperative Innovation Center for Sustainable Pig Production, Wuhan, Hubei, 430070, China
| | - Xueying Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, 430070, China
| | - Hui Jin
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, 430070, China; Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine in Hubei Province, The Cooperative Innovation Center for Sustainable Pig Production, Wuhan, Hubei, 430070, China
| | - Rui Luo
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, 430070, China; Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine in Hubei Province, The Cooperative Innovation Center for Sustainable Pig Production, Wuhan, Hubei, 430070, China.
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Identification of a Neutralizing Monoclonal Antibody That Recognizes a Unique Epitope on Domain III of the Envelope Protein of Tembusu Virus. Viruses 2020; 12:v12060647. [PMID: 32549221 PMCID: PMC7354527 DOI: 10.3390/v12060647] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2020] [Revised: 06/09/2020] [Accepted: 06/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Domain III of the envelope protein (EDIII) is the major target of flavivirus neutralizing antibody. To date, little is known regarding antibody-mediated neutralization of Tembusu virus (TMUV), a novel flavivirus emerging in duck in 2010. Here, a novel monoclonal antibody (MAb), designated 12F11, was prepared by immunization of mice with recombinant EDIII (rEDIII) protein. Using virus neutralization test, 12F11 in undiluted ascites neutralized the TMUV infectivity to induce the development of cytopathic effects in BHK-21 cells, indicating that 12F11 exhibits a neutralizing activity. The neutralizing activity of 12F11 was confirmed by plaque reduction neutralization test, in which 12F11 reduced significantly the number of plaques produced by TMUV in BHK-21 cells. Western blot analyses of a series of truncated rEDIII proteins showed that the epitope recognized by 12F11 includes amino acids between residues 8 and 77 of EDIII protein. Function analysis demonstrated that 12F11 neutralizes TMUV infection at virus adsorption and at a step after adsorption to a certain extent. The present study provides an important step towards elucidating antibody-mediated neutralization of TMUV.
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