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Mitchell JK, Matthee S, Ndhlovu A, Miller M, Buss P, Matthee CA. The Microbiome and Coxiella Diversity Found in Amblyomma hebraeum and Dermacentor rhinocerinus Ticks Sampled from White Rhinoceros. MICROBIAL ECOLOGY 2025; 88:48. [PMID: 40402315 PMCID: PMC12098525 DOI: 10.1007/s00248-025-02549-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2025] [Accepted: 05/09/2025] [Indexed: 05/23/2025]
Abstract
The microbiome and the prevalence of the pathogenic bacterium Coxiella burnetii in ticks associated with white rhinoceros, Ceratotherium simum, is unknown. Targeted Illumina 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing was used to characterize the bacterial microbiome diversity found within 40 Amblyomma hebraeum and 40 Dermacentor rhinocerinus ticks collected from 40 white rhinoceros individuals in the Kruger National Park, South Africa. Specific emphasis was also given to further investigate the prevalence of the pathogenic C. burnetti in these tick species. At the phylum level, Proteobacteria dominated both tick microbiomes, followed by Actinobacteria and Firmicutes; Coxiella was the most abundant genus within A. hebraeum and Rickettsia within D. rhinocerinus. While alpha diversity did not differ significantly between the two tick species, beta diversity revealed significant species-specific differences in bacterial community composition. Additionally, there was no correlation between sampling region and microbiome diversity or composition for either tick species. Twenty-five Coxiella amplicon sequence variants (ASVs) were identified, forming three distinct monophyletic Coxiella clades and a fourth single ASV lineage. The Coxiella clades showed a correlation to tick species identity with D. rhinocerinus harboring significantly greater Coxiella diversity than A. hebraeum-potentially indicative of different coevolutionary pathways between the bacteria and their respective hosts. PCR of the IS1111 transposase gene for 238 ticks detected a 66.1% (56.7-74.4%) prevalence for C. burnetii in D. rhinocerinus compared to 55.8% in A. hebraeum (46.5-64.8%). These findings support a notion that each tick species is characterized by its own microbiome community composition and that both A. hebraeum and D. rhinocerinus may act as reservoirs and potential vectors of C. burnetii to white rhinoceros.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jemma K Mitchell
- Evolutionary Genomics Group, Department of Botany and Zoology, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa
| | - Sonja Matthee
- Department of Conservation Ecology & Entomology, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa
| | - Andrew Ndhlovu
- Evolutionary Genomics Group, Department of Botany and Zoology, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa
- School for Climate Studies, Stellenbosch University, Private Bag X1, Matieland, 7602, South Africa
| | - Michele Miller
- South African Medical Research Council Centre for Tuberculosis Research, Division of Molecular Biology and Human Genetics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University, PO Box 241, Cape Town, 8000, South Africa
| | - Peter Buss
- Veterinary Wildlife Services, South African National Parks, Kruger National Park, Private Bag X402, Skukuza, 1350, South Africa
| | - Conrad A Matthee
- Evolutionary Genomics Group, Department of Botany and Zoology, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa.
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Zając Z, Cabezas-Cruz A. Recognizing a Silent Threat: Canine Ehrlichiosis and Rickettsiosis in Northern Portugal. Pathogens 2024; 13:1040. [PMID: 39770300 PMCID: PMC11728842 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens13121040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2024] [Accepted: 11/25/2024] [Indexed: 01/16/2025] Open
Abstract
Vector-borne diseases pose significant challenges for both animal and public health worldwide [...].
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Affiliation(s)
- Zbigniew Zając
- Department of Biology and Parasitology, Medical University of Lublin, Radziwiłłowska 11 St., 20-080 Lublin, Poland
| | - Alejandro Cabezas-Cruz
- ANSES, INRAE, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d’Alfort, UMR BIPAR, Laboratoire de Santé Animale, F-94700 Maisons-Alfort, France
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Wiedeman W, Glover AB, Steyl J, O'Dell J, Van Heerden H. Clinical Coxiella burnetii infection in sable and roan antelope in South Africa. Onderstepoort J Vet Res 2024; 91:e1-e6. [PMID: 39099298 PMCID: PMC11304184 DOI: 10.4102/ojvr.v91i1.2151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2023] [Revised: 05/10/2024] [Accepted: 05/28/2024] [Indexed: 08/06/2024] Open
Abstract
Various zoonotic microorganisms cause reproductive problems such as abortions and stillbirths, leading to economic losses on farms, particularly within livestock. In South Africa, bovine brucellosis is endemic in cattle, and from 2013-2018, outbreaks of Brucella melitensis occurred in sable. Coxiella burnetii, the agent responsible for the zoonotic disease known as Q-fever and/or coxiellosis, also causes reproductive problems and infects multiple domestic animal species worldwide, including humans. However, little is known of this disease in wildlife. With the expansion of the wildlife industry in South Africa, diseases like brucellosis and coxiellosis can significantly impact herd breeding success because of challenges in identifying, managing and treating diseases in wildlife populations. This study investigated samples obtained from aborted sable and roan antelope, initially suspected to be brucellosis, from game farms in South Africa using serology tests and ruminant VetMAX™ polymerase chain reaction (PCR) abortion kit. The presence of C. burnetii was confirmed with PCR in a sable abortion case, while samples from both sable and roan were seropositive for C. burnetii indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (iELISA). This study represents the initial report of C. burnetii infection in sable and roan antelope in South Africa. Epidemiological investigations are crucial to assess the risk of C. burnetii in sable and roan populations, as well as wildlife and livestock in general, across South Africa. This is important in intensive farming practices, particularly as Q-fever, being a zoonotic disease, poses a particular threat to the health of veterinarians and farm workers as well as domestic animals.Contribution: A report of clinical C. burnetii infection in the wildlife industry contributes towards the limited knowledge of this zoonotic disease in South Africa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wikus Wiedeman
- aculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, Onderstepoort.
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de França DA, da Silva JS, Rodrigues NJL, Duré AÍDL, Farinhas JH, Kmetiuk LB, Langoni H, Biondo AW. Serosurvey of Coxiella burnetii in Police Officers and Working Dogs in Brazil: Case Report and One Health Implications. Trop Med Infect Dis 2024; 9:78. [PMID: 38668539 PMCID: PMC11054645 DOI: 10.3390/tropicalmed9040078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2024] [Revised: 03/29/2024] [Accepted: 04/03/2024] [Indexed: 04/29/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Although the Coxiella burnetii infection has been investigated in dogs, its role in human transmission remains to be fully established, particularly in close and daily human-dog contact settings, such as in Police K-9 Units. METHODS Accordingly, this study aimed to assess anti-C. burnetii antibodies in clinically healthy police officers by an in-house indirect immunofluorescence assay (IFA), and working dogs by a commercial IFA Kit, from the State Special Operations Battalion, Paraná, Southern Brazil. RESULTS Overall, 1/18 (5.5%) police officers and 9/30 (30.0%; CI 95% 16.66-47.88) dogs tested seropositive to anti-C. burnetii IgG antibodies. CONCLUSIONS To date, this is the highest prevalence of Q fever seropositivity among military dogs worldwide. Despite the low sampling rate, a statistically significant association was found between seropositivity and female dogs (p = 0.0492). Further studies with larger sample sizes should be conducted to establish the prevalence of Q Fever in other Brazilian K-9 Units. In summary, this study is the first to conduct a concomitant serosurvey of police officers and working dogs, and its findings should be considered a warning for cross-exposure and transmission of Coxiella burnetii among Police K-9 Units in Brazil and worldwide.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danilo Alves de França
- Department of Animal Production and Preventive Veterinary Medicine, School of Veterinary Medicine and Animals Science, São Paulo State University, Botucatu 05508-220, Brazil; (D.A.d.F.); (N.J.L.R.); (H.L.)
| | - Jéssica Santos da Silva
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Federal University of Paraná State, Curitiba 81530-000, Brazil; (J.S.d.S.); (J.H.F.)
| | - Nássarah Jabur Lot Rodrigues
- Department of Animal Production and Preventive Veterinary Medicine, School of Veterinary Medicine and Animals Science, São Paulo State University, Botucatu 05508-220, Brazil; (D.A.d.F.); (N.J.L.R.); (H.L.)
| | - Ana Íris de Lima Duré
- Service of Virology and Rickettsiosis, Octavio Magalhaes Institute, Ezequiel Dias Foundation, Belo Horizonte 30510-010, Brazil;
| | - João Henrique Farinhas
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Federal University of Paraná State, Curitiba 81530-000, Brazil; (J.S.d.S.); (J.H.F.)
| | - Louise Bach Kmetiuk
- Zoonoses Surveillance Unit, Municipal Secretary of Health, Curitiba 81265-320, Brazil;
| | - Helio Langoni
- Department of Animal Production and Preventive Veterinary Medicine, School of Veterinary Medicine and Animals Science, São Paulo State University, Botucatu 05508-220, Brazil; (D.A.d.F.); (N.J.L.R.); (H.L.)
| | - Alexander Welker Biondo
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Federal University of Paraná State, Curitiba 81530-000, Brazil; (J.S.d.S.); (J.H.F.)
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Diseko LJ, Tsotetsi-Khambule AM, Onyiche TE, Ramatla T, Thekisoe O, Gcebe N. Coxiella burnetii infections from animals and ticks in South Africa: a systematic review. Vet Res Commun 2024; 48:19-28. [PMID: 37642820 PMCID: PMC10811037 DOI: 10.1007/s11259-023-10204-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2023] [Accepted: 08/17/2023] [Indexed: 08/31/2023]
Abstract
Coxiella burnetii is a zoonotic intracellular bacterium that is widely distributed and affects domestic animals, wildlife, humans and non-mammalian species. This systematic review was aimed at synthesizing research findings on C. burnetii in both domestic and wild animals of South Africa. The systematic review protocol was registered with Open Society Foundations of systematic reviews ( https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/8WS ). PRISMA guidelines were followed to collect and evaluate relevant scientific articles published on C. burnetii infecting domestic and wild animals in South Africa. Published articles were sourced from five electronic databases, namely, Google Scholar, PubMed and ScienceDirect, EBSCO and Scopus. Results showed 11 eligible studies involving four domestic animals, three wild animals and one ectoparasite species from seven provinces across South Africa. The occurrence of C. burnetii infection was high in Ceratotherium simum (white rhinoceros) (53.9%), medium in sheep (29.0%) and low in pigs (0.9%). Limpopo province (26%) had the most recorded infections followed by KwaZulu-Natal (19%) and Free State (3%) had the least reported occurrence of C. burnetii. The current study discovered that there is scarcity of published research on prevalence and distribution of C. burnetii infecting domestic and wild animals in South Africa, and this is of concern as this bacterium is an important zoonotic pathogen of "One Health" importance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Letlhogonolo J Diseko
- Unit for Environmental Sciences and Management, North-West University, Potchefstroom, 2520, South Africa
| | - Ana M Tsotetsi-Khambule
- Department of Life and Consumer Sciences, College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, University of South Africa, Florida, 1709, South Africa
| | - ThankGod E Onyiche
- Unit for Environmental Sciences and Management, North-West University, Potchefstroom, 2520, South Africa
- Department of Veterinary Parasitology and Entomology, University of Maiduguri, P.M.B. 1069, Maiduguri, Nigeria
| | - Tsepo Ramatla
- Unit for Environmental Sciences and Management, North-West University, Potchefstroom, 2520, South Africa.
| | - Oriel Thekisoe
- Unit for Environmental Sciences and Management, North-West University, Potchefstroom, 2520, South Africa
| | - Nomakorinte Gcebe
- Agricultural Research Council-Bacteriology and Zoonotic Diseases Diagnostic Laboratory, Onderstepoort Veterinary Research, Onderstepoort, Pretoria, 0110, South Africa
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Thekisoe O, Ramatla T, Ringo A, Mnisi S, Mphuthi N, Mofokeng L, Lekota K, Xuan X. Molecular detection of Rickettsia africae from Amblyomma hebraeum ticks in Mafikeng city of North West Province, South Africa. Res Vet Sci 2023; 164:105027. [PMID: 37776608 DOI: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2023.105027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2023] [Revised: 09/18/2023] [Accepted: 09/19/2023] [Indexed: 10/02/2023]
Abstract
Rickettsia africae causes zoonotic African tick bite fever, which is a disease of "One Health" importance. There have been reported cases of tourists from Europe and Asia who have been bitten by ticks whilst visiting South Africa's nature reserves, and on their return to their countries, the display African Tick Bite Fever sickness. Hence, the aim of this study was to determine the occurrence of Rickettsia africae in Amblyomma hebraeum ticks infesting livestock in the North West Province. A total of 358 A. hebraeum ticks were collected from 60 ruminants (cattle, sheep and goats) in Mafikeng City of North West Province, South Africa. Ticks were identified morphologically and further confirmed by sequencing of their ITS2 gene. DNA was extracted from 60 pools of ticks which consisted of 5-6 adult ticks that were from the same ruminant host. Infections with Rickettsia spp. were found in 48%, 40%, and 32% of cattle, sheep, and goats, respectively, in amplification by PCR using the ompA gene. The ompA gene sequences showed that the Rickettsia spp. were identified as R. africae. Although the animals from whom the ticks were collected did not exhibit any clinical symptoms, it is well recognised that R. africae is a disease with significant zoonotic potential. Thus, it is important to use the "One Health" approach to formulate prevention and control measures for this pathogen for animal and human health as well as the tourism sector due to the ecotourism importance of the resultant disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oriel Thekisoe
- Unit for Environmental Sciences and Management, North-West University, Potchefstroom 2531, South Africa
| | - Tsepo Ramatla
- Unit for Environmental Sciences and Management, North-West University, Potchefstroom 2531, South Africa.
| | - Aron Ringo
- National Research Center for Protozoan Diseases, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Obihiro, Hokkaido 080-8555, Japan
| | - Sifiso Mnisi
- Department of Animal Health, School of Agricultural Sciences, North-West University, Mmabatho 2735, South Africa
| | - Nthabiseng Mphuthi
- Department of Animal Health, School of Agricultural Sciences, North-West University, Mmabatho 2735, South Africa
| | - Lehlohonolo Mofokeng
- Unit for Environmental Sciences and Management, North-West University, Potchefstroom 2531, South Africa
| | - Kgaugelo Lekota
- Unit for Environmental Sciences and Management, North-West University, Potchefstroom 2531, South Africa
| | - Xuenan Xuan
- National Research Center for Protozoan Diseases, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Obihiro, Hokkaido 080-8555, Japan
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Mucheka VT, Pillay A, Mukaratirwa S. Prevalence of tick-borne pathogens in Rhipicephalus species infesting domestic animals in Africa: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Acta Trop 2023; 246:106994. [PMID: 37516420 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2023.106994] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2023] [Revised: 07/25/2023] [Accepted: 07/26/2023] [Indexed: 07/31/2023]
Abstract
Rhipicephalus ticks transmit important tick-borne pathogens (TBPs) such as Anaplasma, Babesia, and Theileria spp. which cause major economic losses in livestock production and contribute to emerging zoonotic diseases. A vast amount of data is available based on the demonstration of these pathogens in various host tissues, with limited information on the prevalence of these TBPs and their vectors. Quantifying TBPs infection rates among Rhipicephalus spp. is essential for the effective control and management of TBDs in domestic animals and surveillance of emerging diseases in humans, as they have close social associations. This review summarizes the prevalence of TBPs in Rhipicephalus spp. from domestic animals of Africa. A thorough search was done in SCOPUS, Web of Knowledge, PubMed, Google Scholar, and library sources from 2000 to 2022. All research in Africa reporting TBPs infection rates in Rhipicephalus spp. were included in the selection criteria. The meta-analysis evaluated publication bias using funnel plots to analyze the observed heterogeneity and applied a quality effects model. Prevalence estimates were based on data from 46 studies reporting TBPs infection rates in Rhipicephalus spp. from northern and sub-Saharan Africa. Sub-group analysis was done by geographic region and tick genus. A total of 12,368 Rhipicephalus spp. collected from domestic animals in Africa were used in the meta-analysis. The quality effects model revealed a high degree of heterogeneity among studies on the various TBPs. The overall prevalence of detected TBPs such as Theileria spp. was 8% (95% CI: 3-15%), Rickettsia spp. 3% (95% CI: 0-9%), Ehrlichia spp. 7% (95% CI: 2-14%), Anaplasma spp. 8% (95% CI: 2-16%), Coxiella spp. 10% (95% CI: 1-26%) and Babesia spp. 6% (95% CI: 2-12%). Northern Africa had the highest prevalence of Anaplasma spp. 12% (95% CI: 3-25%) and Theileria spp. 16% (95% CI: 0-42%). Whilst West Africa had the highest prevalence for Ehrlichia spp. 12% (95% CI: 3-24%) and eastern Africa for Rickettsia spp. 8% (95% CI: 4-12%). This is a systematic and quantitative investigation of the various TBPs detected in Rhipicephalus tick vectors from domestic animal hosts in Africa. The findings demonstrate considerable species variation across the African continent and offer preliminary estimates of infection rates for the continent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vimbai Tendai Mucheka
- School of Life Sciences, Biological Sciences, College of Agriculture, Engineering and Science, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Westville Campus, Durban 4001, South Africa
| | - Alicia Pillay
- School of Life Sciences, Biological Sciences, College of Agriculture, Engineering and Science, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Westville Campus, Durban 4001, South Africa.
| | - Samson Mukaratirwa
- School of Life Sciences, Biological Sciences, College of Agriculture, Engineering and Science, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Westville Campus, Durban 4001, South Africa; One Health Centre for Zoonoses and Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Ross University School of Veterinary Medicine, Basseterre, St. Kitts, West Indies
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Epidemiological Survey on Tick-Borne Pathogens with Zoonotic Potential in Dog Populations of Southern Ethiopia. Trop Med Infect Dis 2023; 8:tropicalmed8020102. [PMID: 36828518 PMCID: PMC9962431 DOI: 10.3390/tropicalmed8020102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2022] [Revised: 01/30/2023] [Accepted: 01/31/2023] [Indexed: 02/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Dogs are known to host several tick-borne pathogens with zoonotic potential; however, scant information is available on the epidemiology of these pathogens in low-income tropical countries and in particular in sub-Saharan Africa. With the aim of investigating a wide range of tick-borne pathogens (i.e., Rickettsia spp., Anaplasma spp., Erhlichia spp., Borrelia spp., Hepatozoon spp. and Babesia spp.), 273 blood samples were collected from dogs in selected districts of Ethiopia and analyzed by real-time and/or end-point PCR. The results of the study showed that Hepatozoon canis was the most prevalent pathogen (53.8%), followed by Anaplasma phagocythophilum (7.0%), Babesia canis rossi (3.3%), Ehrlichia canis (2.6%) and Anaplasma platys (2.2%). Furthermore, five samples tested positive for Borrelia spp., identified as Borrelia afzelii (n = 3) and Borrelia burgdorferi (n = 2), and two samples for Rickettsia spp., identified as Rickettsia conorii (n = 1) and Rickettsia monacensis (n = 1). The finding of Anaplasma phagocythophilum and different species of the genera Borrelia and Rickettsia with zoonotic potential was unexpected and alarming, and calls for further investigation on the roles of dogs and on the tick, species acting as vector in this specific context. Other pathogens (Hepatozoon canis, Babaesia canis rossi, Anaplasma platys, Ehrlichia canis) are already known to have an important impact on the dogs' health but have minor zoonotic potential as they were rarely or never reported in humans. Dogs from rural areas were found to be at higher risk for different pathogens, probably due to the presence of other wild canids in the same environment. The findings of the present study contribute to a better knowledge of the epidemiology of tick-borne pathogens, which is relevant to human and animal health.
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Mofokeng LS, Smit NJ, Cook CA. Molecular Detection of Tick-Borne Bacteria from Amblyomma (Acari: Ixodidae) Ticks Collected from Reptiles in South Africa. Microorganisms 2022; 10:microorganisms10101923. [PMID: 36296199 PMCID: PMC9607068 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms10101923] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2022] [Revised: 09/19/2022] [Accepted: 09/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Reptiles are hosts for various tick species and tick-associated organisms, many of which are zoonotic. However, little is known about the presence and diversity of tick-borne bacteria infecting reptiles and their ticks in South Africa. Amblyomma ticks (n = 253) collected from reptiles were screened for the presence of Coxiella, Anaplasma, Rickettsia, and Borrelia species by amplification, sequencing and phylogenetic analysis of the 16S rRNA, 23S rRNA, gltA, OmpA, and Flagellin genes, respectively. This study recorded the presence of reptile associated Borrelia species and Coxiella-like endosymbiont in South Africa for the first time. Furthermore, a spotted fever group Rickettsia species was observed in 7 Amblyomma marmoreum and 14 Amblyomma sylvaticum from tortoises of genera Kinixys and Chersina. Francisella-like endosymbiont was observed from 2 Amblyomma latum collected from the Mozambique spitting cobra, Naja mossambica. Coxiella burnetii and Anaplasma spp., were not detected from the current samples. Although the direct evidence that reptiles can act as reservoir hosts remains to be determined, observations from this study provide indications that reptilian ticks may play a role in the transmission of pathogenic bacteria to homothermic animals. Furthermore, the absence of Anaplasma spp., and C. burnetii does not mean that these pathogens should be completely neglected.
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Sidote MN, Stoler J, Amoako N, Duodu S, Awandare G. Animal contact and paediatric acute febrile illness in Greater Accra Region, Ghana. Ghana Med J 2022; 56:221-230. [PMID: 37448994 PMCID: PMC10336642 DOI: 10.4314/gmj.v56i3.13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Objective To examine the association between animal contact (primarily dogs and cats) and non-malarial fever, as well as with secondary symptoms of headache, nausea, vomiting, and cough, in 687 children in Greater Accra Region, Ghana. Design Cross-sectional study of acute febrile illness among children aged 1-15 years old between October 2016 and August 2017. Setting Ledzokuku-Krowor Municipal Assembly (LEKMA) Hospital, Teshie, Greater Accra Region. Participants The study included children with acute fever, defined as a measured temperature of greater than 37.5°C, occurring less than seven days before the hospital visit, and afebrile children as controls. Main outcome measures Measured fever, self-reported fever, and secondary symptoms, each adjusting for patient household characteristics. Results Animal contact was neither associated with measured fever (OR = 1.04, 95% CI 0.73-1.49) nor with self-reported fever (OR = 0.97, 95% CI 0.68-1.39). Animal contact was associated with headache (OR = 3.26, 95% CI 2.23-4.77, P < .01) and nausea (OR = 3.05, 95% CI 1.99-4.68, P < .01), but not with vomiting or cough. Additional models that used alternate inclusion criteria to define non-malarial fever yielded similar results. Several bacterial zoonoses that could plausibly have been transmitted by dogs and cats were diagnosed in the study population. Conclusion These findings suggest the need for future studies to evaluate animal contact as a risk factor for bacterial zoonoses that may serve as an etiological driver of acute febrile illness. Funding no external funding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa N Sidote
- Department of Public Health Sciences, Miller School of Medicine, University of Miami, Miami, FL, USA
| | - Justin Stoler
- Department of Public Health Sciences, Miller School of Medicine, University of Miami, Miami, FL, USA
- Department of Geography and Sustainable Development, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL, USA
| | - Nicholas Amoako
- Kintampo Health Research Centre, Kintampo, Ghana
- West African Centre for Cell Biology of Infectious Pathogens, University of Ghana, Accra, Ghana
- Department of Biochemistry, Cell and Molecular Biology, University of Ghana, Legon, Ghana
| | - Samuel Duodu
- West African Centre for Cell Biology of Infectious Pathogens, University of Ghana, Accra, Ghana
- Department of Biochemistry, Cell and Molecular Biology, University of Ghana, Legon, Ghana
| | - Gordon Awandare
- West African Centre for Cell Biology of Infectious Pathogens, University of Ghana, Accra, Ghana
- Department of Biochemistry, Cell and Molecular Biology, University of Ghana, Legon, Ghana
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van Wyk CL, Mtshali K, Taioe MO, Terera S, Bakkes D, Ramatla T, Xuan X, Thekisoe O. Detection of Ticks and Tick-Borne Pathogens of Urban Stray Dogs in South Africa. Pathogens 2022; 11:pathogens11080862. [PMID: 36014983 PMCID: PMC9416273 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens11080862] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2022] [Revised: 07/14/2022] [Accepted: 07/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
This study aimed to identify ticks infesting dogs admitted to the Potchefstroom Animal Welfare Society (PAWS) and to detect tick-borne pathogens they are harbouring. A total of 592 ticks were collected from 61 stray dogs admitted to PAWS originating from several suburbs in and near Potchefstroom, South Africa. The dog ticks were identified as Haemaphysalis elliptica (39%) and Rhipicephalus sanguineus (61%) by both morphological and DNA analyses. Of these ticks, H. elliptica consisted of 67.5% (156/231) and 32.5% (75/231) female and male ticks, respectively, whilst R. sanguineus consisted of 48.5% (175/361) and 51.5% (186/361) female and male ticks, respectively. Microscopic examination of blood smears from engorged female ticks indicated overall occurrences of 0.5% (1/204) for Babesia spp. from R. sanguineus, 1% (2/204) of Anaplasma spp. from H. elliptica, and 22% (45/204) of Rickettsia spp. from both H. elliptica and R. sanguineus. Using pooled samples molecular detection of tick-borne pathogens indicated overall occurrences of 1% (1/104) for A. phagocytophilum in H. elliptica, 9.6% (10/104) of Rickettsia spp. in H. elliptica and R. sanguineus, 5.8% (6/104) of Ehrlichia canis in H. elliptica and R. sanguineus, and 13.5% (14/104) of Coxiella spp. in both H. elliptica and R. sanguineus. Additionally, PCR detected 6.5% (2/31) of Coxiella spp. DNA from H. elliptica eggs. Our data indicate that urban stray dogs admitted at PAWS are infested by H. elliptica and R. sanguineus ticks which are harbouring several pathogenic organisms known to cause tick-borne diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clara-Lee van Wyk
- Unit for Environmental Sciences and Management, North-West University, Potchefstroom 2520, South Africa; (C.-L.v.W.); (M.O.T.); (T.R.); (O.T.)
| | - Khethiwe Mtshali
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Tshwane University of Technology, Arcadia Campus, Pretoria 0001, South Africa;
| | - Moeti O. Taioe
- Unit for Environmental Sciences and Management, North-West University, Potchefstroom 2520, South Africa; (C.-L.v.W.); (M.O.T.); (T.R.); (O.T.)
- Epidemiology, Parasites and Vectors, Agricultural Research Council, Onderstepoort Veterinary Research, Onderstepoort 0110, South Africa
| | - Stallone Terera
- Potchefstroom Animal Welfare Society, Potchefstroom 2531, South Africa;
| | - Deon Bakkes
- Gertrud Theiler Tick Museum, Agricultural Research Council, Onderstepoort Veterinary Research, Onderstepoort 0110, South Africa;
| | - Tsepo Ramatla
- Unit for Environmental Sciences and Management, North-West University, Potchefstroom 2520, South Africa; (C.-L.v.W.); (M.O.T.); (T.R.); (O.T.)
| | - Xuenan Xuan
- National Research Center for Protozoan Diseases, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Obihiro 080-8555, Japan
- Correspondence:
| | - Oriel Thekisoe
- Unit for Environmental Sciences and Management, North-West University, Potchefstroom 2520, South Africa; (C.-L.v.W.); (M.O.T.); (T.R.); (O.T.)
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Dobinson R, Wright I. Exotic bloodborne parasites and dogs imported from Africa. Vet Rec 2022; 191:67-69. [PMID: 35866941 DOI: 10.1002/vetr.2052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The number of dogs legally imported to the UK from Africa is on the rise, and so too, therefore, is the risk of co-importing currently exotic parasites. Here, Rebecca Dobinson and Ian Wright report the results of a small study carried out in Sierra Leone, in which visibly healthy dogs were screened for the presence of several bloodborne parasites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca Dobinson
- Compassionate Paws International, Westway Veterinary Group, Houghton Business Centre, Houghton le Spring DH5 8BJ
| | - Ian Wright
- Mount Vets, 1 Harris Street, Fleetwood FY7 6QX
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Chigwada AD, Mapholi NO, Ogola HJO, Mbizeni S, Masebe TM. Pathogenic and Endosymbiotic Bacteria and Their Associated Antibiotic Resistance Biomarkers in Amblyomma and Hyalomma Ticks Infesting Nguni Cattle (Bos spp.). Pathogens 2022; 11:pathogens11040432. [PMID: 35456107 PMCID: PMC9028808 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens11040432] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2022] [Revised: 03/27/2022] [Accepted: 03/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Deciphering the interactions between ticks and their microbiome is key to revealing new insights on tick biology and pathogen transmission. However, knowledge on tick-borne microbiome diversity and their contribution to drug resistance is scarce in sub–Saharan Africa (SSA), despite endemism of ticks. In this study, high-throughput 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing and PICRUSt predictive function profiling were used to characterize the bacterial community structure and associated antibiotic resistance markers in Amblyomma variegatum, A. hebraeum, and Hyalomma truncatum ticks infesting Nguni cattle (Bos spp.). Twenty-one (seven families and fourteen genera) potentially pathogenic and endosymbiotic bacterial taxa were differentially enriched in two tick genera. In H. truncatum ticks, a higher abundance of Corynebacterium (35.6%), Porphyromonas (14.4%), Anaerococcus (11.1%), Trueperella (3.7%), and Helcococcus (4.7%) was detected. However, Rickettsia (38.6%), Escherichia (7%), and Coxiellaceae (2%) were the major differentially abundant taxa in A. variegatum and A. hebraeum. Further, an abundance of 50 distinct antibiotic resistance biomarkers relating to multidrug resistance (MDR) efflux pumps, drug detoxification enzymes, ribosomal protection proteins, and secretion systems, were inferred in the microbiome. This study provides theoretical insights on the microbiome and associated antibiotic resistance markers, important for the design of effective therapeutic and control decisions for tick-borne diseases in the SSA region.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aubrey Dickson Chigwada
- Department of Life and Consumer Sciences, College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, University of South Africa (UNISA), Florida Campus, Roodepoort 1709, South Africa; (A.D.C.); (N.O.M.); (H.J.O.O.); (S.M.)
| | - Ntanganedzeni Olivia Mapholi
- Department of Life and Consumer Sciences, College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, University of South Africa (UNISA), Florida Campus, Roodepoort 1709, South Africa; (A.D.C.); (N.O.M.); (H.J.O.O.); (S.M.)
| | - Henry Joseph Oduor Ogola
- Department of Life and Consumer Sciences, College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, University of South Africa (UNISA), Florida Campus, Roodepoort 1709, South Africa; (A.D.C.); (N.O.M.); (H.J.O.O.); (S.M.)
- School of Agricultural and Food Sciences, Jaramogi Oginga Odinga University of Science and Technology, Bondo P.O. Box 210-40601, Kenya
| | - Sikhumbuzo Mbizeni
- Department of Life and Consumer Sciences, College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, University of South Africa (UNISA), Florida Campus, Roodepoort 1709, South Africa; (A.D.C.); (N.O.M.); (H.J.O.O.); (S.M.)
| | - Tracy Madimabi Masebe
- Department of Life and Consumer Sciences, College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, University of South Africa (UNISA), Florida Campus, Roodepoort 1709, South Africa; (A.D.C.); (N.O.M.); (H.J.O.O.); (S.M.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +27-11-471-2268
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Masika SJ, Muchemi GM, Okumu TA, Mutura S, Zimmerman D, Kamau J. Molecular evidence of Anaplasma phagocytophilum in olive baboons and vervet monkeys in Kenya. BMC Vet Res 2021; 17:385. [PMID: 34906141 PMCID: PMC8669034 DOI: 10.1186/s12917-021-03095-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2021] [Accepted: 11/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Nonhuman primates (NHPs) play a significant role in zoonotic spill-overs, serving as either reservoirs, or amplifiers, of multiple neglected tropical diseases, including tick-borne infections. Anaplasma phagocytophilum are obligate intracellular bacteria of the family Anaplasmatacae, transmitted by Ixodid ticks and cause granulocytic anaplasmosis (formerly known as Human Granulocytic Ehrlichiosis (HGE)) in a wide range of wild and domestic mammals and humans too. The aim of this study was to determine whether Anaplasma phagocytophilum was circulating in olive baboons and vervet monkeys in Laikipia County, Kenya. Results Some 146 blood samples collected from olive baboons and 18 from vervet monkeys from Mpala Research Center and Ol jogi Conservancy in Laikipia County were screened for the presence of Anaplasma species using conventional Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR), and then A. phagocytophilum was confirmed by sequencing using conventional PCR targeting 16S rRNA. This study found an overall prevalence of 18.3% for Anaplasma species. DNA sequences confirmed Anaplasma phagocytophilum in olive baboons for the first time in Kenya. Conclusion This study provides valuable information on the endemicity of A. phagocytophilum bacteria in olive baboons in Kenya. Future research is needed to establish the prevalence and public health implications of zoonotic A. phagocytophilum isolates and the role of nonhuman primates as reservoirs in the region.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sophie Jerusa Masika
- Department of Public Health, Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya. .,Molecular biology laboratory, Institute of Primate Research, Nairobi Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya.
| | - Gerald Mwangi Muchemi
- Department of Public Health, Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Tequiero Abuom Okumu
- Department of Public Health, Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Samson Mutura
- Molecular biology laboratory, Institute of Primate Research, Nairobi Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Dawn Zimmerman
- Global Health Program, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Washington, DC, USA.,Department of Epidemiology of Microbial Disease, Yale School of Public Health, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Joseph Kamau
- Molecular biology laboratory, Institute of Primate Research, Nairobi Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya
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Molecular Detection of Coxiella burnetii, Rickettsia africae and Anaplasma Species in Ticks from Domestic Animals in Lesotho. Pathogens 2021; 10:pathogens10091186. [PMID: 34578218 PMCID: PMC8468460 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens10091186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2021] [Revised: 09/02/2021] [Accepted: 09/03/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Tick-borne diseases (TBDs) hamper the growth of the livestock sector and impose major constraints for the health and management of domestic animals in the tropic and subtropical regions globally. Currently, there is no scientific report on the presence of zoonotic pathogens transmitted by tick species in Lesotho. This study aimed to identify zoonotic tick-borne pathogens of economic importance from ticks infesting domestic animals in Lesotho using molecular techniques. A total of 322 tick DNA pools were subjected to PCR screening for the presence of zoonotic pathogens and sequenced. The overall prevalence of Anaplasma spp. was 35% (113/322), with a 100% infection rate in Rhipicephalus microplus, followed by R. evertsi evertsi (92%), Hyalomma rufipes and Otobius megnini sharing 50% and the lowest infection rate was observed in R. decoloratus with 40%. The prevalence of Coxiella burnetii, a gram-negative pleomorphic etiological agent of Query fever (Q fever), was 1% (2/322) for all screened samples, with 20% of R. decoloratus and 1% of R. e. evertsi infected. Rickettsia africae was detected from Hyalomma rufipes with a 70% prevalence. This study provides a baseline knowledge of tick-borne pathogens of medical and veterinary importance in Lesotho and raises awareness of the prevalence of such diseases within the tourism sector as they are mostly affected.
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Survey of Ticks and Tick-Borne Rickettsial and Protozoan Pathogens in Eswatini. Pathogens 2021; 10:pathogens10081043. [PMID: 34451507 PMCID: PMC8401679 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens10081043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2021] [Revised: 08/10/2021] [Accepted: 08/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Ticks are widespread parasites of vertebrates and major vectors of pathogens to humans, domestic animals, and wildlife. In southern Africa, numerous tick species transmit diseases of economic and health importance. This study aimed to describe the occurrence of ticks and tick-borne pathogens in multiple land-use types and the possible role of ticks in the transmission of pathogen species. Using molecular techniques, we screened 1716 ticks for infection by rickettsial bacteria and protozoans. To characterize pathogen identity, we sequenced multiple loci from positive samples and analyzed sequences within a phylogenetic framework. Across the seven tick species collected as nymphs or adults, we detected Rickettsia, Anaplasma, Ehrlichia, Babesia, Hepatozoon, and Theileira species. We found that some tick species and tick-borne pathogens differed according to land use. For example, we found a higher density of Haemaphysalis elliptica and higher prevalence of Rickettsia in H. elliptica collected from savanna grasses used for livestock grazing near human settlements than savanna grasses in conservation areas. These findings highlight the importance of comprehensive surveillance to achieve a full understanding of the diversity and ecology of the tick-borne pathogens that can infect humans, domestic animals, and wildlife.
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17
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Atelerix algirus, the North African Hedgehog: Suitable Wild Host for Infected Ticks and Fleas and Reservoir of Vector-Borne Pathogens in Tunisia. Pathogens 2021; 10:pathogens10080953. [PMID: 34451417 PMCID: PMC8399139 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens10080953] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2021] [Revised: 07/05/2021] [Accepted: 07/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Small wild mammals are an important element in the emergence and transmission of vector-borne pathogens (VBPs). Among these species, hedgehogs have been found to be a reservoir of VBPs and host of arthropod vectors. Surveillance of VBPs in wildlife and their arthropods are crucial in a one health context. We conducted an exploratory study to screen Atelerix algirus hedgehogs and their infesting ticks and fleas for VBPs using a high throughput microfluidic real-time PCR system. Tested biopsies from hedgehogs were found to be naturally infected by Theileria youngi, Hepatozoon sp., Ehrlichia ewingii, Coxiella burnetii, and Candidatus Ehrlichia shimanensis. Similarly, Haemaphysalis erinacei and Rhipicephalus sanguineus tick species were infected by Ehrlichia ewingii, Rickettsia spp., Rickettsia massiliae, Borrelia sp., Coxiella burnetii, Rickettsia lusitaniae and Anaplasma sp. Archaeopsylla erinacei fleas were infected by Rickettsia asembonensis, Coxiella burnetii, and Rickettsia massiliae. Co-infections by two and three pathogens were detected in hedgehogs and infesting ticks and fleas. The microfluidic real-time PCR system enabled us not only to detect new and unexpected pathogens, but also to identify co-infections in hedgehogs, ticks, and fleas. We suggest that hedgehogs may play a reservoir role for VBPs in Tunisia and contribute to maintaining enzootic pathogen cycles via arthropod vectors.
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SEROLOGICAL EVIDENCE OF COXIELLA BURNETII INFECTION IN THE WHITE RHINOCEROS ( CERATOTHERIUM SIMUM) IN SOUTH AFRICA. J Zoo Wildl Med 2021; 52:573-579. [PMID: 34130400 DOI: 10.1638/2020-0154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/02/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Coxiellosis, or Query (Q) fever, a disease caused by the intracellular bacteria Coxiella burnetii, was recently described in a managed breeding herd of white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum) in the southeastern United States. Clinical disease often results in abortion and could represent a conservation challenge for this species. In addition to the reproductive and herd management consequences, coxiellosis is also a zoonotic disease. Infection or clinical disease in any free-ranging rhinoceros species in a national park setting has not been previously described. In this study, evidence of prior infection was measured by immunofluorescent antibody titers in 89 serum samples collected from white rhinoceros within private reserves and a national park in South Africa. Total seropositivity was 48/89 (53.9% [95% CI, 43.6-63.9%]). Animals on private reserves had a seropositivity of 21/51 (41.1% [95% CI, 27.1-55.2%]), and national park rhinoceros had a higher rate of seropositivity at 71.0% [95% CI, 55.9-86.2%] (27/38; P= 0.004). Adults had a higher seropositivity compared with subadults (P= 0.03). There was no difference in seropositivity between sexes (P > 0.05). Results demonstrate that South African white rhinoceros populations are exposed to Coxiella, which could result in underrecognized reproductive consequences. Further studies should investigate potential implications for public health and conservation management of this species.
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Julien DA, Sargeant JM, Filejski C, Versluis AM, Waind V, Harper SL. Unleashing the literature: a scoping review of canine zoonotic and vectorborne disease research in Canis familiaris in North America. Anim Health Res Rev 2021; 22:26-39. [PMID: 33355067 DOI: 10.1017/s1466252320000237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) provide important benefits to human beings but can also transmit pathogens. Information on the breadth of canine zoonoses and vectorborne research in North America is scarce. A scoping review was conducted to examine (1) the number and type of canine zoonoses and vectorborne studies in domestic dogs conducted in North America since the start of the 21st century; (2) the main research methods reported; (3) the Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index (IHDI) countries in which research was conducted; and (4) whether collaborative integrated terminology was reported in objectives or methods sections. Title/abstract screening, full-text screening, and data-charting were completed by two reviewers. We identified 507 publications evaluating 43 zoonotic or vectorborne pathogens in domestic dogs. Most studies (n = 391 of 512 (76.37%)) were conducted in the USA. The five most frequently researched pathogens were Ehrlichia spp. (n = 81 of 507 (15.98%)), Borrelia burgdorferi (n = 64 of 507 (12.62%)), Leptospira spp. (n = 54 of 507 (10.65%)), Rabies virus (n = 42 of 507 (8.28%)), and Influenza viruses (n = 41 of 507 (8.09%)). These pathogens can cause moderate to severe health outcomes in human beings and in dogs irrespective of IHDI ranking; our review highlights important counts of research conduct among North American countries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danielle A Julien
- Department of Population Medicine, University of Guelph, Ontario, N1G 2W1, Canada
- Centre for Public Health and Zoonoses, University of Guelph, Ontario, N1G 2W1, Canada
| | - Jan M Sargeant
- Department of Population Medicine, University of Guelph, Ontario, N1G 2W1, Canada
- Centre for Public Health and Zoonoses, University of Guelph, Ontario, N1G 2W1, Canada
| | - Catherine Filejski
- Office of Chief Medical Officer of Health, Public Health, Ontario Ministry of Health, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Ali M Versluis
- Research and Scholarship Team, University of Guelph McLaughlin Library, Guelph, Ontario, N1G 2W1, Canada
| | - Victoria Waind
- Department of Population Medicine, University of Guelph, Ontario, N1G 2W1, Canada
| | - Sherilee L Harper
- Department of Population Medicine, University of Guelph, Ontario, N1G 2W1, Canada
- School of Public Health, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, T6G 2R3, Canada
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20
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Kennedy MA, Thompson RE, McRee Bakker A, Fung C, Dawson J, Parry R, Foggin C, Odoi A. Detection and analysis of tick-borne infections in communal dogs of northwest Zimbabwe. J S Afr Vet Assoc 2021; 92:e1-e4. [PMID: 33970003 PMCID: PMC8111609 DOI: 10.4102/jsava.v92i0.2096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2020] [Revised: 02/22/2021] [Accepted: 02/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) may serve as a reservoir or a sentinel for infectious disease pathogens that can affect human and wildlife health. To understand the role of tick-borne diseases in rural and lesser developed regions, we investigated the prevalence of several tick-borne pathogens in communal dogs of Zimbabwe. Blood samples from 225 dogs in northwest Zimbabwe were assessed by serology for Ehrlichia canis, Anaplasma phagocytophilum and Borrelia burgdorferi, and 241 samples were assessed by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for Ehrlichia. There was a high seroprevalence (73%) of E. canis-specific antibodies in domestic dogs in northwest Zimbabwe, but follow up analyses via PCR and genetic sequencing indicated only 7.5% of the canines were actively infected with the organism. Whilst indicating that an organism serologically related to E. canis is likely present in the region, this data also shows that the organism is currently present in a relative minority of the domestic dogs in the region. Its presence as evidenced by both serologic and PCR analysis is significant because of the ‘one health’ paradigm, where humans and wildlife may be affected by the exposure to this pathogen in domestic dogs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa A Kennedy
- Department of Biomedical and Diagnostic Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee, United States of America.
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Qiu Y, Simuunza M, Kajihara M, Chambaro H, Harima H, Eto Y, Simulundu E, Squarre D, Torii S, Takada A, Hang'ombe BM, Sawa H, Sugimoto C, Nakao R. Screening of tick-borne pathogens in argasid ticks in Zambia: Expansion of the geographic distribution of Rickettsia lusitaniae and Rickettsia hoogstraalii and detection of putative novel Anaplasma species. Ticks Tick Borne Dis 2021; 12:101720. [PMID: 33865179 DOI: 10.1016/j.ttbdis.2021.101720] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2020] [Revised: 02/05/2021] [Accepted: 03/09/2021] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Ticks (Ixodidae and Argasidae) are important arthropod vectors of various pathogens that cause human and animal infectious diseases. Many previously published studies on tick-borne pathogens focused on those transmitted by ixodid ticks. Although there are increasing reports of viral pathogens associated with argasid ticks, information on bacterial pathogens they transmit is scarce. The aim of this molecular study was to detect and characterize Rickettsia and Anaplasmataceae in three different argasid tick species, Ornithodoros faini, Ornithodoros moubata, and Argas walkerae collected in Zambia. Rickettsia hoogstraalii and Rickettsia lusitaniae were detected in 77 % (77/100) of Ar. walkerae and 10 % (5/50) of O. faini, respectively. All O. moubata pool samples (n = 124) were negative for rickettsial infections. Anaplasmataceae were detected in 63 % (63/100) of Ar. walkerae and in 82.2 % (102/124) of O. moubata pools, but not in O. faini. Phylogenetic analysis based on the concatenated sequences of 16S rRNA and groEL genes revealed that Anaplasma spp. detected in the present study were distinct from previously validated Anaplasma species, indicating that the current knowledge on the diversity and vector range of Anaplasma spp. is incomplete. Our findings highlight new geographical records of R. lusitaniae and R. hoogstraalii and confirm that the wide geographic distribution of these species includes the African continent. The data presented here increase our knowledge on argasid tick-borne bacteria and contribute toward understanding their epidemiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yongjin Qiu
- Hokudai Center for Zoonosis Control in Zambia, Hokkaido University Research Center for Zoonosis Control, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Martin Simuunza
- Department of Disease Control, School of Veterinary Medicine, the University of Zambia, Lusaka, Zambia; Africa Center of Excellence for Infectious Diseases of Humans and Animals, The University of Zambia, Lusaka, Zambia
| | - Masahiro Kajihara
- Hokudai Center for Zoonosis Control in Zambia, Hokkaido University Research Center for Zoonosis Control, Sapporo, Japan; Division of Global Epidemiology, Hokkaido University Research Center for Zoonosis Control, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Herman Chambaro
- Division of Molecular Pathobiology, Hokkaido University Research Center for Zoonosis Control, Sapporo, Japan; Central Veterinary Research Institute (CVRI), Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock, Lusaka, Zambia
| | - Hayato Harima
- Hokudai Center for Zoonosis Control in Zambia, Hokkaido University Research Center for Zoonosis Control, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Yoshiki Eto
- Division of Global Epidemiology, Hokkaido University Research Center for Zoonosis Control, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Edgar Simulundu
- Department of Disease Control, School of Veterinary Medicine, the University of Zambia, Lusaka, Zambia; Macha Research Trust, Choma, Zambia
| | - David Squarre
- Department of National Parks and Wildlife, Ministry of Tourism and Arts, Chilanga, Zambia; Division of Collaboration and Education, Hokkaido University Research Center for Zoonosis Control, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Shiho Torii
- Division of Molecular Pathobiology, Hokkaido University Research Center for Zoonosis Control, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Ayato Takada
- Department of Disease Control, School of Veterinary Medicine, the University of Zambia, Lusaka, Zambia; Division of Global Epidemiology, Hokkaido University Research Center for Zoonosis Control, Sapporo, Japan; International Collaboration Unit, Hokakido University Research Center for Zoonosis Control, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Bernard Mudenda Hang'ombe
- Africa Center of Excellence for Infectious Diseases of Humans and Animals, The University of Zambia, Lusaka, Zambia; Department of Para-Clinical Studies, School of Veterinary Medicine, the University of Zambia, Lusaka, Zambia
| | - Hirofumi Sawa
- Department of Disease Control, School of Veterinary Medicine, the University of Zambia, Lusaka, Zambia; Division of Molecular Pathobiology, Hokkaido University Research Center for Zoonosis Control, Sapporo, Japan; International Collaboration Unit, Hokakido University Research Center for Zoonosis Control, Sapporo, Japan; Global Virus Network, Baltimore, USA
| | - Chihiro Sugimoto
- Department of Disease Control, School of Veterinary Medicine, the University of Zambia, Lusaka, Zambia; Division of Collaboration and Education, Hokkaido University Research Center for Zoonosis Control, Sapporo, Japan; International Collaboration Unit, Hokakido University Research Center for Zoonosis Control, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Ryo Nakao
- Laboratory of Parasitology, Graduate School of Infectious Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Hokkaido, Japan.
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Ebani VV. Retrospective Study on the Occurrence of Antibodies against Coxiella burnetii in Dogs from Central Italy. Pathogens 2020; 9:pathogens9121068. [PMID: 33419246 PMCID: PMC7766669 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens9121068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2020] [Revised: 12/17/2020] [Accepted: 12/18/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Coxiella burnetii, a cause of infection in humans and several animal species, is transmitted through inhalations and oral route but also tick bites. Its spreading in ruminants has been largely investigated, whereas data about the occurrence of this infection in canine population are scanty. In this retrospective study, blood serum samples of 516 dogs were tested by indirect immunofluorescence assay to detect antibodies against C. burnetii; 42 (8.13%) were positive with titers ranging from 1:64 to 1:512. The highest seroprevalences were detected in dogs aged > 5 years, employed in hunting activity and living in a peri-urban/rural environment. Diagnosis for C. burnetii infection should be always carried out in bitches with reproductive disorders. Moreover, in view of the zoonotic impact of this infection, asymptomatic dogs exposed to ticks’ bites and/or to contact with infected farm animals should be checked, too.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valentina Virginia Ebani
- Department of Veterinary Science, University of Pisa, Viale delle Piagge 2, 56124 Pisa, Italy;
- Centre for Climate Change Impact, University of Pisa, Via del Borghetto 80, 56124 Pisa, Italy
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23
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Chatanga E, Kainga H, Razemba T, Ssuna R, Swennen L, Hayashida K, Sugimoto C, Katakura K, Nonaka N, Nakao R. Molecular detection and characterization of tick-borne hemoparasites and Anaplasmataceae in dogs in major cities of Malawi. Parasitol Res 2020; 120:267-276. [PMID: 33225402 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-020-06967-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2020] [Accepted: 11/03/2020] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Tick-borne pathogens (TBPs) in dogs have attracted much attention over the last decade since some are now known to be zoonotic and pose a threat to both animal and human health sectors. Despite the increase in the number of studies on canine TBPs worldwide, only a few studies have been conducted in resource-limited countries where research priority is given to food animals than companion animals. In the present study, the occurrence of TBPs of the genera Babesia, Hepatozoon, Anaplasma, and Ehrlichia was investigated in 209 owned and stray dogs in three major cities in Malawi through molecular techniques. Among the examined dogs, 93 (44.5%) were infected with at least one TBP. The detection rates were 23.1% for Babesia rossi, 2.9% for B. vogeli, 19.1% for Hepatozoon canis, 2.4% for Anaplasma platys, and 3.8% for Ehrlichia canis. This is the first molecular study that has provided evidence that dogs in Malawi are infected with TBPs. Sensitization is required for veterinary practitioners, dog handlers, and pet owners as the detected pathogens affect the animals' wellbeing. Further studies focusing on rural areas with limited or no access to veterinary care are required to ascertain the extent of the TBP infection in dogs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisha Chatanga
- Laboratory of Parasitology, Graduate School of Infectious Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Kita-18 Nishi-9, Sapporo, Hokkaido, 060-0818, Japan
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Lilongwe University of Agriculture and Natural Resources, P.O. Box 219, Lilongwe, Malawi
| | - Henson Kainga
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Lilongwe University of Agriculture and Natural Resources, P.O. Box 219, Lilongwe, Malawi
| | - Tinotenda Razemba
- Lilongwe Society for the Protection and Care of Animals (LSPCA), Private Bag 30383, Kanengo, Lilongwe, Malawi
| | - Richard Ssuna
- All Creatures Animal Welfare League, 18 Acacia Road, P.O. Box 30962, Capital City, Lilongwe 3, Malawi
| | - Lieza Swennen
- Lilongwe Society for the Protection and Care of Animals (LSPCA), Private Bag 30383, Kanengo, Lilongwe, Malawi
| | - Kyoko Hayashida
- Division of Collaboration and Education, Research Centre for Zoonosis Control, Hokkaido University, Kita-20 Nishi-10, Sapporo, Hokkaido, 001-0020, Japan
| | - Chihiro Sugimoto
- Division of Collaboration and Education, Research Centre for Zoonosis Control, Hokkaido University, Kita-20 Nishi-10, Sapporo, Hokkaido, 001-0020, Japan
| | - Ken Katakura
- Laboratory of Parasitology, Graduate School of Infectious Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Kita-18 Nishi-9, Sapporo, Hokkaido, 060-0818, Japan
| | - Nariaki Nonaka
- Laboratory of Parasitology, Graduate School of Infectious Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Kita-18 Nishi-9, Sapporo, Hokkaido, 060-0818, Japan
| | - Ryo Nakao
- Laboratory of Parasitology, Graduate School of Infectious Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Kita-18 Nishi-9, Sapporo, Hokkaido, 060-0818, Japan.
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24
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Mofokeng LS, Taioe OM, Smit NJ, Thekisoe OMM. Parasites of veterinary importance from domestic animals in uMkhanyakude district of KwaZulu-Natal province. J S Afr Vet Assoc 2020; 91:e1-e11. [PMID: 32787418 PMCID: PMC7433224 DOI: 10.4102/jsava.v91i0.2023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2019] [Revised: 02/13/2020] [Accepted: 02/19/2020] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
This study investigated the occurrence and phylogenetic relationship of protozoan parasites and Ehrlichia infecting domestic animals from three municipalities in uMkhanyakude district of KwaZulu-Natal province, South Africa. A total of 208 blood samples collected from clinically healthy cattle, sheep, goats and dogs from uMkhanyakude district were examined by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assays, using either genus or species-specific primers to determine the occurrence and phylogenetic relationship of various protozoan parasites and Ehrlichia of veterinary importance. A total of 5/109 (4.6%) cattle were PCR-positive for the presence of Toxoplasma gondii, 33/109 (30.3%) for Babesia bovis, 24/109 (22.02%) for Babesia bigemina and 20/109 (18.3%) for Trypanosoma sp., while 3/10 (30%) of sheep were PCR-positive for Theileria ovis and none of the goats were positive for any of the detected pathogens. The co-infection of 4/109 (3.7%) B. bovis and B. bigemina was detected in cattle. Only Ehrlichia canis was detected in dogs with infection rate of 20/48 (41.7%). Sequences of PCR-positive isolates (B. bovis, B. bigemina, E. canis, T. ovis and T. gondii) showed that they were closely related to their relevant species from various countries. These findings have expanded our knowledge about the prevalence and phylogenetic similarity between protozoan parasites and Ehrlichia isolates of South African origin. To date, this is the first study in South Africa to detect T. gondii infections from cattle blood using PCR.
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25
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Systematic Review of Important Bacterial Zoonoses in Africa in the Last Decade in Light of the 'One Health' Concept. Pathogens 2019; 8:pathogens8020050. [PMID: 30995815 PMCID: PMC6631375 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens8020050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2019] [Revised: 04/10/2019] [Accepted: 04/11/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Zoonoses present a major public health threat and are estimated to account for a substantial part of the infectious disease burden in low-income countries. The severity of zoonotic diseases is compounded by factors such as poverty, living in close contact with livestock and wildlife, immunosuppression as well as coinfection with other diseases. The interconnections between humans, animals and the environment are essential to understand the spread and subsequent containment of zoonoses. We searched three scientific databases for articles relevant to the epidemiology of bacterial zoonoses/zoonotic bacterial pathogens, including disease prevalence and control measures in humans and multiple animal species, in various African countries within the period from 2008 to 2018. The review identified 1966 articles, of which 58 studies in 29 countries met the quality criteria for data extraction. The prevalence of brucellosis, leptospirosis, Q fever ranged from 0–40%, 1.1–24% and 0.9–28.2%, respectively, depending on geographical location and even higher in suspected outbreak cases. Risk factors for human zoonotic infection included exposure to livestock and animal slaughters. Dietary factors linked with seropositivity were found to include consumption of raw milk and locally fermented milk products. It was found that zoonoses such as leptospirosis, brucellosis, Q fever and rickettsiosis among others are frequently under/misdiagnosed in febrile patients seeking treatment at healthcare centres, leading to overdiagnoses of more familiar febrile conditions such as malaria and typhoid fever. The interactions at the human–animal interface contribute substantially to zoonotic infections. Seroprevalence of the various zoonoses varies by geographic location and species. There is a need to build laboratory capacity and effective surveillance processes for timely and effective detection and control of zoonoses in Africa. A multifaceted ‘One Health’ approach to tackle zoonoses is critical in the fight against zoonotic diseases. The impacts of zoonoses include: (1) Humans are always in contact with animals including livestock and zoonoses are causing serious life-threatening infections in humans. Almost 75% of the recent major global disease outbreaks have a zoonotic origin. (2) Zoonoses are a global health challenge represented either by well-known or newly emerging zoonotic diseases. (3) Zoonoses are caused by all-known cellular (bacteria, fungi and parasites) and noncellular (viruses or prions) pathogens. (4) There are limited data on zoonotic diseases from Africa. The fact that human health and animal health are inextricably linked, global coordinated and well-established interdisciplinary research efforts are essential to successfully fight and reduce the health burden due to zoonoses. This critically requires integrated data from both humans and animals on zoonotic diseases.
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26
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Rautenbach Y, Schoeman J, Goddard A. Prevalence of canine Babesia and Ehrlichia co-infection and the predictive value of haematology. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2018; 85:e1-e5. [PMID: 30326715 PMCID: PMC6324083 DOI: 10.4102/ojvr.v85i1.1626] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2018] [Revised: 08/18/2018] [Accepted: 08/20/2018] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Canine babesiosis and ehrlichiosis are important tick-borne infections in South Africa. Many South African general veterinary practitioners perceive co-infection with Ehrlichia spp. as a common occurrence in dogs with babesiosis. Studies about the prevalence of co-infection in South African dogs are lacking. This retrospective study aimed to determine the prevalence of Ehrlichia co-infection in dogs with babesiosis. Additionally, the predicative value of specific haematological variables for co-infection was evaluated. The study population consisted of 205 dogs diagnosed with canine babesiosis presented to the Onderstepoort Veterinary Academic Hospital (OVAH) in 2006 and between 2011 and 2013. The Babesia-infected dogs were grouped based on presence or absence of an Ehrlichia spp. co-infection. Ehrlichia spp. co-infection was confirmed using polymerase chain reaction. Positive and negative predictive values (PPVs and NPVs) of leukopenia or thrombocytopenia for co-infection were also calculated. The prevalence of Babesia spp. and Ehrlichia spp. co-infection in this cohort of dogs was 2%. In the babesiosis dogs, the PPV of leukopenia for co-infection with Ehrlichia spp. was 1.3%, and the NPV 97.4%. Similarly, the PPV and NPVs of thrombocytopenia for co-infection were 2.1% and 100%, respectively. Co-infection with Ehrlichia spp. was a rare occurrence in dogs with babesiosis presented to the OVAH. Normal leukocyte or platelet counts confidently ruled out the presence of concurrent ehrlichiosis in this cohort of dogs. However, the diagnosis of Ehrlichia co-infection based on the presence of thrombocytopenia or leukopenia would have been associated with false positive results in more than 97.4% of cases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yolandi Rautenbach
- Department of Companion Animal Clinical Studies, University of Pretoria.
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27
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Penzhorn BL, Netherlands EC, Cook CA, Smit NJ, Vorster I, Harrison-White RF, Oosthuizen MC. Occurrence of Hepatozoon canis (Adeleorina: Hepatozoidae) and Anaplasma spp. (Rickettsiales: Anaplasmataceae) in black-backed jackals (Canis mesomelas) in South Africa. Parasit Vectors 2018; 11:158. [PMID: 29554933 PMCID: PMC5859442 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-018-2714-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2017] [Accepted: 02/15/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Domestic dogs are not native to sub-Saharan Africa, which may account for their susceptibility to Babesia rossi, of which endemic black-backed jackals (Canis mesomelas) are natural reservoirs. There is virtually no information on the occurrence of potentially pathogenic haemogregarines (e.g. Hepatozoon canis) or even rickettsial bacteria (e.g. Ehrlichia spp. and Anaplasma spp.) in indigenous canids in sub-Saharan Africa. Such organisms could pose a risk to domestic dogs, as well as to populations of endangered indigenous canid species. Results Genomic DNA extracted from blood samples taken from 126 free-ranging and 16 captive black-backed jackals was subjected to reverse line blot (RLB) hybridization assay; 82 (57.8%) specimens reacted only with the Ehrlichia/Anaplasma genera-specific probe. Full-length bacterial 16S rRNA gene of five of these specimens was cloned and the recombinants sequenced. The ten 16S rDNA sequences obtained were most closely related, with approximately 99% identity, to Anaplasma sp. South African Dog, various uncultured Anaplasma spp., as well as various Anaplasma phagocytophilum genotypes. Ninety-one specimens were screened for haemogregarines through PCR amplification using the 18S rRNA gene; 20 (21.9%) specimens reacted positively, of which 14 (15.4%) were confirmed positive for Hepatozoon genotypes from within H. canis. Two (2.2%) specimens were found positive for two different Hepatozoon genotypes. Conclusions Sequence analyses confirmed the presence of 16S rDNA sequences closely related to A. phagocytophilum and Anaplasma sp. South African Dog as well as two H. canis genotypes in both free-ranging and captive black-backed jackals. Distinguishing between closely related lineages may provide insight into differences in pathogenicity and virulence of various Anaplasma and H. canis genotypes. By building up a more comprehensive understanding of the range and diversity of the bacteria and eukaryotic organisms (piroplasms and haemogregarines) in the blood of indigenous canids, we may gain insight to such infections in these often-endangered species and the potential for horizontal transmission to and from domestic dogs via ticks where favourable conditions exist.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barend L Penzhorn
- Vectors and Vector-borne Diseases Research Programme, Department of Veterinary Tropical Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, Private Bag X04, Onderstepoort, 0110, South Africa. .,National Zoological Gardens, Boom Street, Pretoria, South Africa.
| | - Edward C Netherlands
- Water Research Group, Unit for Environmental Sciences and Management, North-West University, Private Bag X6001, Potchefstroom, 2520, South Africa.,African Amphibian Conservation Research Group, Unit for Environmental Sciences and Management, North-West University, Private Bag X6001, Potchefstroom, 2520, South Africa.,Laboratory of Aquatic Ecology, Evolution and Conservation, University of Leuven, Charles Debériotstraat 32, B-3000, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Courtney A Cook
- Water Research Group, Unit for Environmental Sciences and Management, North-West University, Private Bag X6001, Potchefstroom, 2520, South Africa.,Department of Zoology and Entomology, University of the Free State, Qwaqwa, South Africa
| | - Nico J Smit
- Water Research Group, Unit for Environmental Sciences and Management, North-West University, Private Bag X6001, Potchefstroom, 2520, South Africa
| | - Ilse Vorster
- Vectors and Vector-borne Diseases Research Programme, Department of Veterinary Tropical Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, Private Bag X04, Onderstepoort, 0110, South Africa
| | | | - Marinda C Oosthuizen
- Vectors and Vector-borne Diseases Research Programme, Department of Veterinary Tropical Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, Private Bag X04, Onderstepoort, 0110, South Africa
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