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Dog rabies control in West and Central Africa: A review. Acta Trop 2021; 224:105459. [PMID: 32404295 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2020.105459] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2019] [Revised: 03/16/2020] [Accepted: 03/24/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Rabies is a neglected but preventable zoonotic disease that predominantly affects the most vulnerable populations living in remote rural areas of resource-limited countries. To date, every country on the African mainland is considered endemic for dog-mediated rabies with an estimated 21'500 human rabies deaths occurring each year. In 2018, the United Against Rabies collaboration launched the Global Strategic Plan to end human deaths from dog-mediated rabies by 2030. The epidemiology of rabies from most Western and Central African countries remains poorly defined, making it difficult to assess the overall rabies situation and progress towards the 2030 goal. In this review, we attempt to provide an overview of the current rabies situation in 22 West and Central African countries based on published scientific literature and information obtained from rabies focal points. To this end, information was collected on i) established surveillance, ii) diagnostic capacity, iii) post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) availability and coverage, iv) dog population estimates, v) dog vaccination campaigns, vi) animal and human health communication (One Health), vii) molecular studies, viii) Knowledge, Attitude and Practices (KAP), ix) cost estimates and x) national control strategies. Although rabies is a notifiable disease in the majority of the studied countries, national surveillance systems do not adequately capture the disease. A general lack of rabies diagnostic capacity has an additional negative impact on rabies surveillance and attempts to estimate rabies burden. Recurrent shortages of human rabies vaccine are reported by all of the countries, with vaccine availability usually limited to major urban centers but no country has yet adopted the new WHO-recommended 1-week intradermal vaccination regimen. Most countries carry out subsidized mass dog vaccination campaigns on World Rabies Day. Such activities are indispensable to keep rabies in the public consciousness but are not of the scale and intensity that is required to eliminate rabies from the dog population. Countries will need to scale up the intensity of their campaigns, if they are to progress towards the 2030 goal. But more than half of the countries do not yet have reliable figures on their dog populations. Only two countries reached stage 2 on the Stepwise Approach towards Rabies Elimination ladder - indicating that their national governments have truly prioritized rabies elimination and are thus providing the necessary support and political buy-in required to achieve success. In summary, the sub-region of West and Central Africa seems to be divided into countries which have accepted the challenge to eliminate rabies with governments committed to pushing forward rabies elimination, while other countries have achieved some progress, but elimination efforts remain stuck due to lacking government commitment and financial constraints. The possibility to meet the 2030 goal without international solidarity is low, because more than two-thirds of the countries rank in the low human development group (HDI ≤ 152). Leading countries should act as role models, sharing their experiences and capacities so that no country is left behind. Unified and with international support it is possible to reach the common goal of zero human rabies deaths by 2030.
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Kimitsuki K, Saito N, Yamada K, Park CH, Inoue S, Suzuki M, Saito-Obata M, Kamiya Y, Manalo DL, Demetria CS, Mananggit MR, Quiambao BP, Nishizono A. Evaluation of the diagnostic accuracy of lateral flow devices as a tool to diagnose rabies in post-mortem animals. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2020; 14:e0008844. [PMID: 33151941 PMCID: PMC7671516 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0008844] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2020] [Revised: 11/17/2020] [Accepted: 09/28/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Implementation of lateral flow devices (LFDs) for rabies antigen detection is expected to improve surveillance through the efficient detection of rabid animals in resource-limited settings; however, the use of LFDs for diagnosis remains controversial because some commercially available kits show low sensitivity. Therefore, we compared the diagnostic efficacy of three LFDs (ADTEC, Bionote, and Elabscience kits) paralleled with the direct fluorescent antibody test (dFAT) using fresh samples and investigated the diagnostic accuracies. To do so, we evaluated rabies-suspected samples submitted to the Regional Animal Disease Diagnostic Laboratory III, Philippines. Furthermore, we conducted real-time RT-PCR and sequencing to measure the accuracy of field laboratory diagnosis. The total number of animals submitted during this study period was 184 cases, including negative control samples. Of these, 53.9% (84 cases) were positive in the dFAT. Dogs were the most common rabies-suspected animal (n = 135). The sensitivities of the ADTEC and Bionote kits were 0.88 (74 cases) and 0.95 (80 cases), respectively. The specificity of both kits was 1.00 (100 cases). Furthermore, the sensitivity and specificity of the ADTEC kit after directly homogenizing the samples in assay buffer without dilution in phosphate-buffered saline (ADTEC kit DM) were 0.94 (79 cases) and 1.00 (100 cases), respectively. By contrast, there were no positive results using the Elabscience kit among all dFAT-positive samples. The sensitivity and specificity of LFDs make these tests highly feasible if properly used. Therefore, LFD tests can be used to strengthen the surveillance of rabies-infected animals in endemic and resource-limited settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kazunori Kimitsuki
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Oita University, Yufu, Oita, Japan
| | - Nobuo Saito
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Oita University, Yufu, Oita, Japan
| | - Kentaro Yamada
- Laboratory of Veterinary Public Health, Department of Veterinary Medical Science, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Miyazaki, Miyazaki, Miyazaki, Japan
| | - Chun-Ho Park
- Department of Veterinary Pathology, School of Veterinary Medicine, Kitasato University, Towada, Aomori, Japan
| | - Satoshi Inoue
- National Institute of Infectious Disease, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Motoi Suzuki
- National Institute of Infectious Disease, Tokyo, Japan
| | | | - Yasuhiko Kamiya
- School of Tropical Medicine & Global Health, Nagasaki University, Nagasaki, Nagasaki, Japan
| | - Daria L. Manalo
- Research Institute for Tropical Medicine, Muntinlupa City, Metro Manila, Philippines
| | - Catalino S. Demetria
- Research Institute for Tropical Medicine, Muntinlupa City, Metro Manila, Philippines
| | - Milagros R. Mananggit
- Regional Animal Disease Diagnostic Laboratory, Department of Agriculture Field Office III, San Fernando, Pampanga, Philippines
| | - Beatriz P. Quiambao
- Research Institute for Tropical Medicine, Muntinlupa City, Metro Manila, Philippines
| | - Akira Nishizono
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Oita University, Yufu, Oita, Japan
- * E-mail:
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Klein A, Fahrion A, Finke S, Eyngor M, Novak S, Yakobson B, Ngoepe E, Phahladira B, Sabeta C, De Benedictis P, Gourlaouen M, Orciari LA, Yager PA, Gigante CM, Knowles MK, Fehlner-Gardiner C, Servat A, Cliquet F, Marston D, McElhinney LM, Johnson T, Fooks AR, Müller T, Freuling CM. Further Evidence of Inadequate Quality in Lateral Flow Devices Commercially Offered for the Diagnosis of Rabies. Trop Med Infect Dis 2020; 5:tropicalmed5010013. [PMID: 31963635 PMCID: PMC7157750 DOI: 10.3390/tropicalmed5010013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2019] [Revised: 01/13/2020] [Accepted: 01/15/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
As a neglected zoonotic disease, rabies causes approximately 5.9 × 104 human deaths annually, primarily affecting low- and middle-income countries in Asia and Africa. In those regions, insufficient surveillance is hampering adequate medical intervention and is driving the vicious cycle of neglect. Where resources to provide laboratory disease confirmation are limited, there is a need for user-friendly and low-cost reliable diagnostic tools that do not rely on specialized laboratory facilities. Lateral flow devices (LFD) offer an alternative to conventional diagnostic methods and may strengthen control efforts in low-resource settings. Five different commercially available LFDs were compared in a multi-centered study with respect to their diagnostic sensitivity and their agreement with standard rabies diagnostic techniques. Our evaluation was conducted by several international reference laboratories using a broad panel of samples. The overall sensitivities ranged from 0% up to 62%, depending on the LFD manufacturer, with substantial variation between the different laboratories. Samples with high antigen content and high relative viral load tended to test positive more often in the Anigen/Bionote test, the latter being the one with the best performance. Still, the overall unsatisfactory findings corroborate a previous study and indicate a persistent lack of appropriate test validation and quality control. At present, the tested kits are not suitable for in-field use for rabies diagnosis, especially not for suspect animals where human contact has been identified, as an incorrect negative diagnosis may result in human casualties. This study points out the discrepancy between the enormous need for such a diagnostic tool on the one hand, and on the other hand, a number of already existing tests that are not yet ready for use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonia Klein
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut (FLI), Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany; (A.K.); (A.F.); (S.F.); (T.M.)
| | - Anna Fahrion
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut (FLI), Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany; (A.K.); (A.F.); (S.F.); (T.M.)
| | - Stefan Finke
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut (FLI), Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany; (A.K.); (A.F.); (S.F.); (T.M.)
| | - Marina Eyngor
- Kimron Veterinary Institute (KVI), Veterinary Services and Animal Health, P.O. Box 12, Beit Dagan 50250, Israel; (M.E.); (S.N.); (B.Y.)
| | - Shiri Novak
- Kimron Veterinary Institute (KVI), Veterinary Services and Animal Health, P.O. Box 12, Beit Dagan 50250, Israel; (M.E.); (S.N.); (B.Y.)
| | - Boris Yakobson
- Kimron Veterinary Institute (KVI), Veterinary Services and Animal Health, P.O. Box 12, Beit Dagan 50250, Israel; (M.E.); (S.N.); (B.Y.)
| | - Ernest Ngoepe
- Onderstepoort Veterinary Institute (OVI), Rabies Unit, Private Bag X05, Onderstepoort 0110, South Africa; (E.N.); (B.P.); (C.S.)
| | - Baby Phahladira
- Onderstepoort Veterinary Institute (OVI), Rabies Unit, Private Bag X05, Onderstepoort 0110, South Africa; (E.N.); (B.P.); (C.S.)
| | - Claude Sabeta
- Onderstepoort Veterinary Institute (OVI), Rabies Unit, Private Bag X05, Onderstepoort 0110, South Africa; (E.N.); (B.P.); (C.S.)
| | - Paola De Benedictis
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, FAO Reference Centre for Rabies, Viale dell’Università, 10, 35020-Legnaro (PD), Italy; (P.D.B.); (M.G.)
| | - Morgane Gourlaouen
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, FAO Reference Centre for Rabies, Viale dell’Università, 10, 35020-Legnaro (PD), Italy; (P.D.B.); (M.G.)
| | - Lillian A. Orciari
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA; (L.A.O.); (P.A.Y.); (C.M.G.)
| | - Pamela A. Yager
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA; (L.A.O.); (P.A.Y.); (C.M.G.)
| | - Crystal M. Gigante
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA; (L.A.O.); (P.A.Y.); (C.M.G.)
| | - M. Kimberly Knowles
- Canadian Food Inspection Agency, Centre of Expertise for Rabies, Ottawa Laboratory Fallowfield, 3851 Fallowfield Road, Nepean, ON K2H 8P9, Canada; (M.K.K.); (C.F.-G.)
| | - Christine Fehlner-Gardiner
- Canadian Food Inspection Agency, Centre of Expertise for Rabies, Ottawa Laboratory Fallowfield, 3851 Fallowfield Road, Nepean, ON K2H 8P9, Canada; (M.K.K.); (C.F.-G.)
| | - Alexandre Servat
- French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health and Safety (Anses), Laboratory for Rabies and Wildlife, Domaine de Pixérécourt, 54220 Malzéville CEDEX, France; (A.S.); (F.C.)
| | - Florence Cliquet
- French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health and Safety (Anses), Laboratory for Rabies and Wildlife, Domaine de Pixérécourt, 54220 Malzéville CEDEX, France; (A.S.); (F.C.)
| | - Denise Marston
- Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA), Weybridge, New Haw, Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK; (D.M.); (L.M.M.); (T.J.); (A.R.F.)
| | - Lorraine M. McElhinney
- Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA), Weybridge, New Haw, Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK; (D.M.); (L.M.M.); (T.J.); (A.R.F.)
| | - Trudy Johnson
- Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA), Weybridge, New Haw, Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK; (D.M.); (L.M.M.); (T.J.); (A.R.F.)
| | - Anthony R. Fooks
- Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA), Weybridge, New Haw, Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK; (D.M.); (L.M.M.); (T.J.); (A.R.F.)
| | - Thomas Müller
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut (FLI), Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany; (A.K.); (A.F.); (S.F.); (T.M.)
| | - Conrad M. Freuling
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut (FLI), Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany; (A.K.); (A.F.); (S.F.); (T.M.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +49-3835171660
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4
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Yale G, Gibson AD, Mani RS, P K H, Costa NC, Corfmat J, Otter I, Otter N, Handel IG, Bronsvoort BM, Mellanby RJ, Desai S, Naik V, Gamble L, Mazeri S. Evaluation of an Immunochromatographic Assay as a Canine Rabies Surveillance Tool in Goa, India. Viruses 2019; 11:E649. [PMID: 31311178 PMCID: PMC6669590 DOI: 10.3390/v11070649] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2019] [Revised: 07/05/2019] [Accepted: 07/08/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Rabies is a fatal zoonotic disease transmitted by the bite of a rabid animal. More than 95% of the human rabies cases in India are attributed to exposure to rabid dogs. This study evaluated the utility of a lateral flow immunochromatographic assay (LFA) (Anigen Rapid Rabies Ag Test Kit, Bionote, Hwaseong-si, Korea) for rapid post mortem diagnosis of rabies in dogs. Brain tissue was collected from 202 animals that were screened through the Government of Goa rabies surveillance system. The brain tissue samples were obtained from 188 dogs, nine cats, three bovines, one jackal and one monkey. In addition, 10 dogs that died due to trauma from road accidents were included as negative controls for the study. The diagnostic performance of LFA was evaluated using results from direct fluorescence antibody test (dFT); the current gold standard post mortem test for rabies infection. Three samples were removed from the analysis as they were autolysed and not fit for testing by dFT. Of the 209 samples tested, 117 tested positive by LFA and 92 tested negative, while 121 tested positive by dFT and 88 tested negative. Estimates of LFA sensitivity and specificity were 0.96 (95% CI 0.91-0.99) and 0.99 (95% CI 0.94-1.00), respectively. The LFA is a simple and low-cost assay that aids in the rapid diagnosis of rabies in the field without the need for expensive laboratory equipment or technical expertise. This study found that Bionote LFA has potential as a screening tool in rabies endemic countries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gowri Yale
- Mission Rabies, Tonca, Panjim, Goa 403002, India.
| | - Andrew D Gibson
- The Roslin Institute and The Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, Division of Genetics and Genomics, The University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush Veterinary Centre, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9RG, UK
- Mission Rabies, Cranborne, Dorset BH21 5PZ, UK
| | - Reeta S Mani
- National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences (NIMHANS), Bangalore 560029, India
| | - Harsha P K
- National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences (NIMHANS), Bangalore 560029, India
| | - Niceta Cunha Costa
- Directorate of Animal Health and Veterinary Services, Patto, Panjim, Goa 403001, India
| | | | - Ilona Otter
- Worldwide Veterinary Service, Hicks ITC, Goa 403507, India
| | - Nigel Otter
- Worldwide Veterinary Service, Hicks ITC, Goa 403507, India
| | - Ian G Handel
- The Roslin Institute and The Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, Division of Genetics and Genomics, The University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush Veterinary Centre, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9RG, UK
| | - Barend Mark Bronsvoort
- The Roslin Institute and The Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, Division of Genetics and Genomics, The University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush Veterinary Centre, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9RG, UK
| | - Richard J Mellanby
- The Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, Division of Veterinary Clinical Studies, The University of Edinburgh, Hospital for Small Animals, Easter Bush Veterinary Centre, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9RG, UK
| | - Santosh Desai
- Directorate of Animal Health and Veterinary Services, Patto, Panjim, Goa 403001, India
| | - Vilas Naik
- Directorate of Animal Health and Veterinary Services, Patto, Panjim, Goa 403001, India
| | - Luke Gamble
- Mission Rabies, Cranborne, Dorset BH21 5PZ, UK
| | - Stella Mazeri
- The Roslin Institute and The Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, Division of Genetics and Genomics, The University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush Veterinary Centre, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9RG, UK
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5
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Reed M, Stuchlik O, Carson WC, Orciari L, Yager PA, Olson V, Li Y, Wu X, Pohl J, Satheshkumar PS. Novel mass spectrometry based detection and identification of variants of rabies virus nucleoprotein in infected brain tissues. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2018; 12:e0006984. [PMID: 30550539 PMCID: PMC6310296 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0006984] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2018] [Revised: 12/28/2018] [Accepted: 11/09/2018] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Human rabies is an encephalitic disease transmitted by animals infected with lyssaviruses. The most common lyssavirus that causes human infection is rabies virus (RABV), the prototypic member of the genus. The incubation period of RABV in humans varies from few weeks to several months in some instances. During this prodromal period, neither antibodies nor virus is detected. Antibodies, antigen and nucleic acids are detectable only after the onset of encephalitic symptoms, at which point the outcome of the disease is nearly 100% fatal. Hence, the primary intervention for human RABV exposure and subsequent post-exposure prophylaxis relies on testing animals suspected of having rabies. The most widely used diagnostic tests in animals focus on antigen detection, RABV-encoded nucleoprotein (N protein) in brain tissues. N protein accumulates in the cytoplasm of infected cells as large and granular inclusions, which are visualized in infected brain tissues by immuno-microscopy using anti-N protein antibodies. In this study, we explored a mass spectrometry (MS) based method for N protein detection without the need for any specific antibody reagents or microscopy. The MS-based method described here is unbiased, label-free, requires no amplification and determines any previously sequenced N protein available in the database. The results demonstrate the ability of MS/MS based method for N protein detection and amino acid sequence determination in animal diagnostic samples to obtain RABV variant information. This study demonstrates a potential for future developments of rabies diagnostic tests based on MS platforms. Although rabies is almost always fatal after the symptom onset phase, it can be prevented by timely administration of post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP), which involves passive antibody transfer and vaccination. One of the primary laboratory confirmatory tests for RABV infection is antigen detection, directed against the RABV encoded N protein using anti-N protein specific antibodies, in central nervous system (CNS) tissue samples of animals. This immuno-microscopy based detection utilizes either fluorescent tags (direct detection) or chromogenic substrates (indirect) in brain impressions from animals in which rabies is suspected. In this study, we explored the detection of N protein by a novel mass spectrometry (MS) based method that is label-free and does not require target amplification. The MS method specifically detected N protein in brain tissue and identified RABV variants based on amino acid sequence information. To our knowledge, this is the first report of an N protein detection method that does not utilize either antibodies or microscopy. This method provides an alternative platform for the development of future rabies diagnostic tests.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew Reed
- Biotechnology Core Facility Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, United States of America
| | - Olga Stuchlik
- Biotechnology Core Facility Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, United States of America
| | - William C. Carson
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, United States of America
| | - Lillian Orciari
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, United States of America
| | - Pamela A. Yager
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, United States of America
| | - Victoria Olson
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, United States of America
| | - Yu Li
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, United States of America
| | - Xianfu Wu
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, United States of America
| | - Jan Pohl
- Biotechnology Core Facility Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, United States of America
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Certoma A, Lunt RA, Vosloo W, Smith I, Colling A, Williams DT, Tran T, Blacksell SD. Assessment of a Rabies Virus Rapid Diagnostic Test for the Detection of Australian Bat Lyssavirus. Trop Med Infect Dis 2018; 3:tropicalmed3040109. [PMID: 30287778 PMCID: PMC6306826 DOI: 10.3390/tropicalmed3040109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2018] [Revised: 09/26/2018] [Accepted: 09/27/2018] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Australian bat lyssavirus (ABLV) is closely related to the classical rabies virus and has been associated with three human fatalities and two equine fatalities in Australia. ABLV infection in humans causes encephalomyelitis, resulting in fatal disease, but has no effective therapy. The virus is maintained in enzootic circulation within fruit bats (Pteropid spp.) and at least one insectivorous bat variety (Saccolaimus flaviventris). Most frequently, laboratory testing is conducted on pteropodid bat brains, either following a potential human exposure through bites, scratches and other direct contacts with bats, or as opportunistic assessment of sick or dead bats. The level of medical intervention and post-exposure prophylaxis is largely determined on laboratory testing for antigen/virus as the demonstrable infection status of the in-contact bat. This study evaluates the comparative diagnostic performance of a lateral flow test, Anigen Rabies Ag detection rapid test (RDT), in pteropodid variant of ABLV-infected bat brain tissues. The RDT demonstrated 100% agreement with the reference standard fluorescent antibody test on 43 clinical samples suggesting a potential application in rapid diagnosis of pteropodid variant of ABLV infection. A weighted Kappa value of 0.95 confirmed a high level of agreement between both tests.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Certoma
- CSIRO Australian Animal Health Laboratory, Portarlington Rd, East Geelong, VIC 3218, Australia, (A.C.); (R.A.L.); (W.V.); (I.S.); (A.C.); (D.T.W.)
| | - Ross A. Lunt
- CSIRO Australian Animal Health Laboratory, Portarlington Rd, East Geelong, VIC 3218, Australia, (A.C.); (R.A.L.); (W.V.); (I.S.); (A.C.); (D.T.W.)
| | - Wilna Vosloo
- CSIRO Australian Animal Health Laboratory, Portarlington Rd, East Geelong, VIC 3218, Australia, (A.C.); (R.A.L.); (W.V.); (I.S.); (A.C.); (D.T.W.)
| | - Ina Smith
- CSIRO Australian Animal Health Laboratory, Portarlington Rd, East Geelong, VIC 3218, Australia, (A.C.); (R.A.L.); (W.V.); (I.S.); (A.C.); (D.T.W.)
| | - Axel Colling
- CSIRO Australian Animal Health Laboratory, Portarlington Rd, East Geelong, VIC 3218, Australia, (A.C.); (R.A.L.); (W.V.); (I.S.); (A.C.); (D.T.W.)
| | - David T. Williams
- CSIRO Australian Animal Health Laboratory, Portarlington Rd, East Geelong, VIC 3218, Australia, (A.C.); (R.A.L.); (W.V.); (I.S.); (A.C.); (D.T.W.)
| | - Thao Tran
- Mahidol-Oxford Tropical Medicine Research Unit, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10400, Thailand;
| | - Stuart D. Blacksell
- Mahidol-Oxford Tropical Medicine Research Unit, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10400, Thailand;
- Centre for Tropical Medicine, Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, Churchill Hospital, Oxford OX3 7FZ, UK
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +66-22-036-333
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Prabhu KN, Isloor S, Veeresh BH, Rathnamma D, Sharada R, Das LJ, Satyanarayana ML, Hegde NR, Rahman SA. Application and Comparative Evaluation of Fluorescent Antibody, Immunohistochemistry and Reverse Transcription Polymerase Chain Reaction Tests for the Detection of Rabies Virus Antigen or Nucleic Acid in Brain Samples of Animals Suspected of Rabies in India. Vet Sci 2018; 5:E24. [PMID: 29495649 PMCID: PMC5876580 DOI: 10.3390/vetsci5010024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2017] [Revised: 02/19/2018] [Accepted: 02/23/2018] [Indexed: 10/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Accurate and early diagnosis of animal rabies is critical for undertaking public health measures. Whereas the direct fluorescent antibody (DFA) technique is the recommended test, the more convenient, direct rapid immunochemistry test (dRIT), as well as the more sensitive, reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), have recently been employed for the laboratory diagnosis of rabies. We compared the three methods on brain samples from domestic (dog, cat, cattle, buffalo, horse, pig and goat) and wild (leopard, wolf and jackal) animals from various parts of India. Of the 257 samples tested, 167 were positive by all the three tests; in addition, 35 of the 36 decomposed samples were positive by RT-PCR. This is the first study in which such large number of animal samples have been subjected to the three tests simultaneously. The results confirm 100% corroboration between DFA and dRIT, buttress the applicability of dRIT in the simple and rapid diagnosis of rabies in animals, and reaffirm the suitability of RT-PCR for samples unfit for testing either by DFA or dRIT.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Nithin Prabhu
- Commonwealth Veterinary Association-Crucell Rabies Diagnostic Laboratory, Department of Microbiology, Veterinary College-Bengaluru, Karnataka Veterinary Animal and Fisheries Sciences University, Bengaluru 560024, India.
- Department of Microbiology, Veterinary College-Bengaluru, Karnataka Veterinary Animal and Fisheries Sciences University, Bengaluru 560024, India.
| | - Shrikrishna Isloor
- Commonwealth Veterinary Association-Crucell Rabies Diagnostic Laboratory, Department of Microbiology, Veterinary College-Bengaluru, Karnataka Veterinary Animal and Fisheries Sciences University, Bengaluru 560024, India.
- Department of Microbiology, Veterinary College-Bengaluru, Karnataka Veterinary Animal and Fisheries Sciences University, Bengaluru 560024, India.
| | - B Hanchinal Veeresh
- Department of Microbiology, Veterinary College-Bengaluru, Karnataka Veterinary Animal and Fisheries Sciences University, Bengaluru 560024, India.
| | - Doddamane Rathnamma
- Department of Microbiology, Veterinary College-Bengaluru, Karnataka Veterinary Animal and Fisheries Sciences University, Bengaluru 560024, India.
| | - R Sharada
- Department of Microbiology, Veterinary College-Bengaluru, Karnataka Veterinary Animal and Fisheries Sciences University, Bengaluru 560024, India.
| | - Lekshmi J Das
- Department of Microbiology, Veterinary College-Bengaluru, Karnataka Veterinary Animal and Fisheries Sciences University, Bengaluru 560024, India.
| | - M L Satyanarayana
- Department of Pathology, Veterinary College-Bengaluru, Karnataka Veterinary Animal and Fisheries Sciences University, Bengaluru 560024, India.
| | - Nagendra R Hegde
- National Institute of Animal Biotechnology, Miyapur, Hyderabad 500049, India.
| | - Sira Abdul Rahman
- Commonwealth Veterinary Association, Jayanagar, Bengaluru 560011, India.
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8
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Schlottau K, Freuling CM, Müller T, Beer M, Hoffmann B. Development of molecular confirmation tools for swift and easy rabies diagnostics. Virol J 2017; 14:184. [PMID: 28938887 PMCID: PMC5610444 DOI: 10.1186/s12985-017-0853-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2017] [Accepted: 09/20/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND As rabies still represents a major public threat with tens of thousands of deaths per year, particularly in developing countries, adequate surveillance based on rapid and reliable rabies diagnosis for both humans and animals is essential. Rabies diagnosis relies on highly sensitive and specific laboratory tests for detection of viral antigens. Among those tests, at present the immunofluorescence antibody test is the "gold standard test" for rabies diagnosis, followed by virus isolation in either mice or cell culture. Because of the advantages of molecular assays in terms of sensitivity and applicability their approval as confirmatory diagnostic test by international organizations (OIE, WHO) is envisaged. Therefore, the objective was to develop and validate novel molecular assays and RNA extraction methods for rabies that reduce the turnaround time but remain highly sensitive and specific. METHODS Here, novel assays, i.e. HighSpeed RT-qPCR and isothermal recombinase polymerase amplification (RPA) were designed and tested. Furthermore, three magnetic bead-based rapid extraction methods for manual or automated extraction were validated and combined with the new downstream assays. RESULTS While the conventional column based RNA extraction method showed the highest intra-run variations, all magnetic bead-based rapid extraction methods delivered nearly comparable sensitivity and efficiency of RNA recovery. All newly developed molecular tests were able to detect different rabies virus strains in a markedly reduced timeframe in comparison to the standard diagnostic assays. The observed detection limit for the HighSpeed RT-qPCR was 10 genome copies per reaction, and 1000 genome copies per reaction for the RPA assay. CONCLUSION Magnetic bead-based rapid RNA extraction methods are highly sensitive and show a high level of reproducibility and therefore, are particularly suitable for molecular diagnostic assays including rabies. In addition, with a detection limit of 10 genome copies per reaction, the HighSpeed RT-qPCR is suitable for rapid ante mortem rabies diagnosis in humans as well as confirmatory test in integrated bite management and subsequent post-exposure prophylaxis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kore Schlottau
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Südufer 10, D-17493, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Conrad M Freuling
- Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Südufer 10, D-17493, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Thomas Müller
- Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Südufer 10, D-17493, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Martin Beer
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Südufer 10, D-17493, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Bernd Hoffmann
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Südufer 10, D-17493, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany.
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9
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Léchenne M, Naïssengar K, Lepelletier A, Alfaroukh IO, Bourhy H, Zinsstag J, Dacheux L. Validation of a Rapid Rabies Diagnostic Tool for Field Surveillance in Developing Countries. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2016; 10:e0005010. [PMID: 27706156 PMCID: PMC5051951 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0005010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2015] [Accepted: 08/29/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND One root cause of the neglect of rabies is the lack of adequate diagnostic tests in the context of low income countries. A rapid, performance friendly and low cost method to detect rabies virus (RABV) in brain samples will contribute positively to surveillance and consequently to accurate data reporting, which is presently missing in the majority of rabies endemic countries. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS We evaluated a rapid immunodiagnostic test (RIDT) in comparison with the standard fluorescent antibody test (FAT) and confirmed the detection of the viral RNA by real time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR). Our analysis is a multicentre approach to validate the performance of the RIDT in both a field laboratory (N'Djamena, Chad) and an international reference laboratory (Institut Pasteur, Paris, France). In the field laboratory, 48 samples from dogs were tested and in the reference laboratory setting, a total of 73 samples was tested, representing a wide diversity of RABV in terms of animal species tested (13 different species), geographical origin of isolates with special emphasis on Africa, and different phylogenetic clades. Under reference laboratory conditions, specificity was 93.3% and sensitivity was 95.3% compared to the gold standard FAT test. Under field laboratory conditions, the RIDT yielded a higher reliability than the FAT test particularly on fresh and decomposed samples. Viral RNA was later extracted directly from the test filter paper and further used successfully for sequencing and genotyping. CONCLUSION/SIGNIFICANCE The RIDT shows excellent performance qualities both in regard to user friendliness and reliability of the result. In addition, the test cassettes can be used as a vehicle to ship viral RNA to reference laboratories for further laboratory confirmation of the diagnosis and for epidemiological investigations using nucleotide sequencing. The potential for satisfactory use in remote locations is therefore very high to improve the global knowledge of rabies epidemiology. However, we suggest some changes to the protocol, as well as careful further validation, before promotion and wider use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monique Léchenne
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | | | - Anthony Lepelletier
- Institut Pasteur, Unit Lyssavirus Dynamics and Host Adaptation, National Reference Center for Rabies and WHO Collaborating Centre for Reference and Research on Rabies, Paris, France
| | | | - Hervé Bourhy
- Institut Pasteur, Unit Lyssavirus Dynamics and Host Adaptation, National Reference Center for Rabies and WHO Collaborating Centre for Reference and Research on Rabies, Paris, France
| | - Jakob Zinsstag
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Laurent Dacheux
- Institut Pasteur, Unit Lyssavirus Dynamics and Host Adaptation, National Reference Center for Rabies and WHO Collaborating Centre for Reference and Research on Rabies, Paris, France
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10
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Eggerbauer E, de Benedictis P, Hoffmann B, Mettenleiter TC, Schlottau K, Ngoepe EC, Sabeta CT, Freuling CM, Müller T. Evaluation of Six Commercially Available Rapid Immunochromatographic Tests for the Diagnosis of Rabies in Brain Material. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2016; 10:e0004776. [PMID: 27336943 PMCID: PMC4918935 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0004776] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2016] [Accepted: 05/24/2016] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Rabies is a neglected zoonotic disease that causes an estimated 60,000 human deaths annually. The main burden lies on developing countries in Asia and Africa, where surveillance and disease detection is hampered by absence of adequate laboratory facilities and/or the difficulties of submitting samples from remote areas to laboratories. Under these conditions, easy-to-use tests such as immunochromatographic assays, i.e. lateral flow devices (LFD), may increase surveillance and improve control efforts. Several LFDs for rabies diagnosis are available but, except for one, there are no data regarding their performance. Therefore, we compared six commercially available LFDs for diagnostic and analytical sensitivity, as well as their specificity and their diagnostic agreement with standard rabies diagnostic techniques using different sample sets, including experimentally infected animals and several sets of field samples. Using field samples the sensitivities ranged between 0% up to 100% depending on the LFD and the samples, while for experimentally infected animals the maximum sensitivity was 32%. Positive results in LFD could be further validated using RT-qPCR and sequencing. In summary, in our study none of the tests investigated proved to be satisfactory, although the results somewhat contradict previous studies, indicating batch to batch variation. The high number of false negative results reiterates the necessity to perform a proper test validation before being marketed and used in the field. In this respect, marketing authorization and batch release control could secure a sufficient quality for these alternative tests, which could then fulfil their potential. Despite being preventable with adequate biologicals, rabies still causes an estimated 60,000 human deaths annually. The main burden lies on developing countries in Asia and Africa, where dog rabies surveillance is hampered by laboratory confirmation of disease due to a number of reasons, including laboratory infrastructure and logistics. Lateral flow devices (LFD) may increase surveillance and improve control efforts. Several LFDs for rabies diagnosis are available but, except for one, there are no data available regarding their performance. Therefore, we compared six commercially available LFDs for diagnostic and analytical sensitivity. With sensitivities ranging from 0% up to 100% depending on the LFD and the samples, none of the tests investigated proved to be satisfactory, and the results somewhat contradict previous studies, indicating batch to batch variation. The high number of false negative results reiterates the necessity to perform a proper test validation before being marketed and used in the field. Only when sufficient quality is assured for these alternative tests, then they can fulfil their potential. In this respect, we demonstrated that positive results in LFD can be further validated and characterized using RT-qPCR and sequencing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisa Eggerbauer
- WHO Collaborating Centre for Rabies Surveillance and Research, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut (FLI), Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Paola de Benedictis
- FAO Reference Centre for Rabies, Instituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Legnaro, Italy
| | - Bernd Hoffmann
- FLI, Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Thomas C. Mettenleiter
- WHO Collaborating Centre for Rabies Surveillance and Research, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut (FLI), Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Kore Schlottau
- FLI, Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Ernest C. Ngoepe
- OIE Rabies Reference Laboratory, Agricultural Research Council, Onderstepoort Veterinary Institute, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Claude T. Sabeta
- OIE Rabies Reference Laboratory, Agricultural Research Council, Onderstepoort Veterinary Institute, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Conrad M. Freuling
- WHO Collaborating Centre for Rabies Surveillance and Research, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut (FLI), Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
- * E-mail:
| | - Thomas Müller
- WHO Collaborating Centre for Rabies Surveillance and Research, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut (FLI), Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
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11
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Taylor LH, Nel LH. Global epidemiology of canine rabies: past, present, and future prospects. VETERINARY MEDICINE (AUCKLAND, N.Z.) 2015; 6:361-371. [PMID: 30101121 PMCID: PMC6067664 DOI: 10.2147/vmrr.s51147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
The rabies virus, a public health scourge from ancient times, is currently responsible for an estimated 59,000 human deaths a year, almost all transmitted via dog bites. It causes considerable economic impacts on developing countries, primarily in Africa and Asia, which can least afford these losses. However, despite its almost 100% case fatality rate, canine rabies is a completely preventable disease, and historic examples of canine rabies elimination in the developed world attest to this. Over the last decade, programs based on eliminating the source of the disease from dogs have shown success in reducing the public health burden of canine rabies in developing countries, notably across Latin America, and this has contributed to the growing evidence base necessary to change attitudes toward the feasibility of global canine rabies elimination. More recently, assessments of the current economic burden of canine rabies and the potential cost savings achievable through mass dog vaccinations have been added to this evidence base. Tools and support are available from the international community to help countries move progressively toward canine rabies elimination, and there is optimism that global freedom from canine rabies can be achieved within the next few decades.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Louis H Nel
- Global Alliance for Rabies Control, Manhattan, KS, USA,
- Department of Microbiology and Plant Pathology, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
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12
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Cleaveland S, Lankester F, Townsend S, Lembo T, Hampson K. Rabies control and elimination: a test case for One Health. Vet Rec 2015; 175:188-93. [PMID: 25172649 DOI: 10.1136/vr.g4996] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
One Health approaches have already been shown to be successful in controlling rabies in different parts of the world. In this article, the latest in Veterinary Record's series promoting One Health, Sarah Cleaveland and her colleagues at the University of Glasgow discuss why integrated strategies are needed to enhance the cost effectiveness of measures to control and eliminate rabies, particularly in low-income countries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Cleaveland
- College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, UK
| | - Felix Lankester
- College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, UK
| | - Sunny Townsend
- College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, UK
| | - Tiziana Lembo
- College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, UK
| | - Katie Hampson
- College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, UK
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13
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Cleaveland S, Beyer H, Hampson K, Haydon D, Lankester F, Lembo T, Meslin FX, Morters M, Mtema Z, Sambo M, Townsend S. The changing landscape of rabies epidemiology and control. Onderstepoort J Vet Res 2014; 81:E1-8. [PMID: 25005807 PMCID: PMC7612516 DOI: 10.4102/ojvr.v81i2.731] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2013] [Accepted: 12/05/2013] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Over the past 20 years, major progress has been made in our understanding of critical aspects of rabies epidemiology and control. This paper presents results of recent research, highlighting methodological advances that have been applied to burden of disease studies, rabies epidemiological modelling and rabies surveillance. These results contribute new insights and understanding with regard to the epidemiology of rabies and help to counteract misperceptions that currently hamper rabies control efforts in Africa. The conclusion of these analyses is that the elimination of canine rabies in Africa is feasible, even in wildlife-rich areas, through mass vaccination of domestic dogs and without the need for indiscriminate culling to reduce dog population density. Furthermore, the research provides valuable practical insights that support the operational planning and design of dog vaccination campaigns and rabies surveillance measures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Cleaveland
- Boyd Orr Centre for Population and Ecosystem Health, Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Scotland.
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14
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Townsend SE, Lembo T, Cleaveland S, Meslin FX, Miranda ME, Putra AAG, Haydon DT, Hampson K. Surveillance guidelines for disease elimination: a case study of canine rabies. Comp Immunol Microbiol Infect Dis 2012; 36:249-61. [PMID: 23260376 PMCID: PMC3693035 DOI: 10.1016/j.cimid.2012.10.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2012] [Revised: 10/26/2012] [Accepted: 10/29/2012] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Surveillance is a critical component of disease control programmes but is often poorly resourced, particularly in developing countries lacking good infrastructure and especially for zoonoses which require combined veterinary and medical capacity and collaboration. Here we examine how successful control, and ultimately disease elimination, depends on effective surveillance. We estimated that detection probabilities of <0.1 are broadly typical of rabies surveillance in endemic countries and areas without a history of rabies. Using outbreak simulation techniques we investigated how the probability of detection affects outbreak spread, and outcomes of response strategies such as time to control an outbreak, probability of elimination, and the certainty of declaring freedom from disease. Assuming realistically poor surveillance (probability of detection <0.1), we show that proactive mass dog vaccination is much more effective at controlling rabies and no more costly than campaigns that vaccinate in response to case detection. Control through proactive vaccination followed by 2 years of continuous monitoring and vaccination should be sufficient to guarantee elimination from an isolated area not subject to repeat introductions. We recommend that rabies control programmes ought to be able to maintain surveillance levels that detect at least 5% (and ideally 10%) of all cases to improve their prospects of eliminating rabies, and this can be achieved through greater intersectoral collaboration. Our approach illustrates how surveillance is critical for the control and elimination of diseases such as canine rabies and can provide minimum surveillance requirements and technical guidance for elimination programmes under a broad-range of circumstances.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sunny E Townsend
- Boyd Orr Centre for Population and Ecosystem Health, Institute for Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, Scotland, UK.
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15
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Servat A, Picard-Meyer E, Robardet E, Muzniece Z, Must K, Cliquet F. Evaluation of a Rapid Immunochromatographic Diagnostic Test for the detection of rabies from brain material of European mammals. Biologicals 2012; 40:61-6. [PMID: 22245544 DOI: 10.1016/j.biologicals.2011.12.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2011] [Revised: 11/23/2011] [Accepted: 12/21/2011] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
The surveillance of rabies relies on investigations conducted on dead suspected animals or animals showing clinical signs suggestive of rabies. An immunochromatographic method based on lateral flow principle has been evaluated against a collection of brain samples mainly of European mammals including bats. The performance of this new test has been compared to the conventional gold standard methods: the fluorescent Antibody Test (FAT) and the Rapid Tissue Culture Infection Test (RTCIT). This test enabled the detection of various rabies strains belonging to rabies species 1, 5, 6 and 7 and demonstrated an overall specificity of 100% and a sensitivity of more than 88% when compared to FAT and RTCIT. A total agreement between the Rapid Immunochromatographic Diagnostic Test and conventional technique results have been obtained for European bat samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandre Servat
- French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health Safety (Anses), Nancy Laboratory for Rabies and Wildlife, WHO Collaborating Centre for Research and Management in Zoonoses Control, Technopôle agricole et vétérinaire, Domaine de Pixérécourt, BP40009, 54220 Malzéville, France.
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