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Whitehill F, Bonaparte S, Hartloge C, Greenberg L, Satheshkumar PS, Orciari L, Niezgoda M, Yager PA, Pieracci EG, McCullough J, Evenson A, Brown CM, Schnitzler H, Lipton B, Signs K, Stobierski MG, Austin C, Slager S, Ernst M, Kerins J, Simeone A, Singh A, Hale S, Stanek D, Shehee P, Slavinski S, McDermott D, Zinna PA, Campagna R, Wallace RM. Rabies in a Dog Imported from Azerbaijan — Pennsylvania, 2021. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2022; 71:686-689. [PMID: 35587914 PMCID: PMC9129904 DOI: 10.15585/mmwr.mm7120a3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Klein A, Fahrion A, Finke S, Eyngor M, Novak S, Yakobson B, Ngoepe E, Phahladira B, Sabeta C, De Benedictis P, Gourlaouen M, Orciari LA, Yager PA, Gigante CM, Knowles MK, Fehlner-Gardiner C, Servat A, Cliquet F, Marston D, McElhinney LM, Johnson T, Fooks AR, Müller T, Freuling CM. Further Evidence of Inadequate Quality in Lateral Flow Devices Commercially Offered for the Diagnosis of Rabies. Trop Med Infect Dis 2020; 5:tropicalmed5010013. [PMID: 31963635 PMCID: PMC7157750 DOI: 10.3390/tropicalmed5010013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2019] [Revised: 01/13/2020] [Accepted: 01/15/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
As a neglected zoonotic disease, rabies causes approximately 5.9 × 104 human deaths annually, primarily affecting low- and middle-income countries in Asia and Africa. In those regions, insufficient surveillance is hampering adequate medical intervention and is driving the vicious cycle of neglect. Where resources to provide laboratory disease confirmation are limited, there is a need for user-friendly and low-cost reliable diagnostic tools that do not rely on specialized laboratory facilities. Lateral flow devices (LFD) offer an alternative to conventional diagnostic methods and may strengthen control efforts in low-resource settings. Five different commercially available LFDs were compared in a multi-centered study with respect to their diagnostic sensitivity and their agreement with standard rabies diagnostic techniques. Our evaluation was conducted by several international reference laboratories using a broad panel of samples. The overall sensitivities ranged from 0% up to 62%, depending on the LFD manufacturer, with substantial variation between the different laboratories. Samples with high antigen content and high relative viral load tended to test positive more often in the Anigen/Bionote test, the latter being the one with the best performance. Still, the overall unsatisfactory findings corroborate a previous study and indicate a persistent lack of appropriate test validation and quality control. At present, the tested kits are not suitable for in-field use for rabies diagnosis, especially not for suspect animals where human contact has been identified, as an incorrect negative diagnosis may result in human casualties. This study points out the discrepancy between the enormous need for such a diagnostic tool on the one hand, and on the other hand, a number of already existing tests that are not yet ready for use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonia Klein
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut (FLI), Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany; (A.K.); (A.F.); (S.F.); (T.M.)
| | - Anna Fahrion
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut (FLI), Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany; (A.K.); (A.F.); (S.F.); (T.M.)
| | - Stefan Finke
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut (FLI), Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany; (A.K.); (A.F.); (S.F.); (T.M.)
| | - Marina Eyngor
- Kimron Veterinary Institute (KVI), Veterinary Services and Animal Health, P.O. Box 12, Beit Dagan 50250, Israel; (M.E.); (S.N.); (B.Y.)
| | - Shiri Novak
- Kimron Veterinary Institute (KVI), Veterinary Services and Animal Health, P.O. Box 12, Beit Dagan 50250, Israel; (M.E.); (S.N.); (B.Y.)
| | - Boris Yakobson
- Kimron Veterinary Institute (KVI), Veterinary Services and Animal Health, P.O. Box 12, Beit Dagan 50250, Israel; (M.E.); (S.N.); (B.Y.)
| | - Ernest Ngoepe
- Onderstepoort Veterinary Institute (OVI), Rabies Unit, Private Bag X05, Onderstepoort 0110, South Africa; (E.N.); (B.P.); (C.S.)
| | - Baby Phahladira
- Onderstepoort Veterinary Institute (OVI), Rabies Unit, Private Bag X05, Onderstepoort 0110, South Africa; (E.N.); (B.P.); (C.S.)
| | - Claude Sabeta
- Onderstepoort Veterinary Institute (OVI), Rabies Unit, Private Bag X05, Onderstepoort 0110, South Africa; (E.N.); (B.P.); (C.S.)
| | - Paola De Benedictis
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, FAO Reference Centre for Rabies, Viale dell’Università, 10, 35020-Legnaro (PD), Italy; (P.D.B.); (M.G.)
| | - Morgane Gourlaouen
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, FAO Reference Centre for Rabies, Viale dell’Università, 10, 35020-Legnaro (PD), Italy; (P.D.B.); (M.G.)
| | - Lillian A. Orciari
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA; (L.A.O.); (P.A.Y.); (C.M.G.)
| | - Pamela A. Yager
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA; (L.A.O.); (P.A.Y.); (C.M.G.)
| | - Crystal M. Gigante
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA; (L.A.O.); (P.A.Y.); (C.M.G.)
| | - M. Kimberly Knowles
- Canadian Food Inspection Agency, Centre of Expertise for Rabies, Ottawa Laboratory Fallowfield, 3851 Fallowfield Road, Nepean, ON K2H 8P9, Canada; (M.K.K.); (C.F.-G.)
| | - Christine Fehlner-Gardiner
- Canadian Food Inspection Agency, Centre of Expertise for Rabies, Ottawa Laboratory Fallowfield, 3851 Fallowfield Road, Nepean, ON K2H 8P9, Canada; (M.K.K.); (C.F.-G.)
| | - Alexandre Servat
- French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health and Safety (Anses), Laboratory for Rabies and Wildlife, Domaine de Pixérécourt, 54220 Malzéville CEDEX, France; (A.S.); (F.C.)
| | - Florence Cliquet
- French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health and Safety (Anses), Laboratory for Rabies and Wildlife, Domaine de Pixérécourt, 54220 Malzéville CEDEX, France; (A.S.); (F.C.)
| | - Denise Marston
- Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA), Weybridge, New Haw, Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK; (D.M.); (L.M.M.); (T.J.); (A.R.F.)
| | - Lorraine M. McElhinney
- Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA), Weybridge, New Haw, Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK; (D.M.); (L.M.M.); (T.J.); (A.R.F.)
| | - Trudy Johnson
- Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA), Weybridge, New Haw, Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK; (D.M.); (L.M.M.); (T.J.); (A.R.F.)
| | - Anthony R. Fooks
- Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA), Weybridge, New Haw, Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK; (D.M.); (L.M.M.); (T.J.); (A.R.F.)
| | - Thomas Müller
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut (FLI), Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany; (A.K.); (A.F.); (S.F.); (T.M.)
| | - Conrad M. Freuling
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut (FLI), Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany; (A.K.); (A.F.); (S.F.); (T.M.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +49-3835171660
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Reed M, Stuchlik O, Carson WC, Orciari L, Yager PA, Olson V, Li Y, Wu X, Pohl J, Satheshkumar PS. Novel mass spectrometry based detection and identification of variants of rabies virus nucleoprotein in infected brain tissues. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2018; 12:e0006984. [PMID: 30550539 PMCID: PMC6310296 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0006984] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2018] [Revised: 12/28/2018] [Accepted: 11/09/2018] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Human rabies is an encephalitic disease transmitted by animals infected with lyssaviruses. The most common lyssavirus that causes human infection is rabies virus (RABV), the prototypic member of the genus. The incubation period of RABV in humans varies from few weeks to several months in some instances. During this prodromal period, neither antibodies nor virus is detected. Antibodies, antigen and nucleic acids are detectable only after the onset of encephalitic symptoms, at which point the outcome of the disease is nearly 100% fatal. Hence, the primary intervention for human RABV exposure and subsequent post-exposure prophylaxis relies on testing animals suspected of having rabies. The most widely used diagnostic tests in animals focus on antigen detection, RABV-encoded nucleoprotein (N protein) in brain tissues. N protein accumulates in the cytoplasm of infected cells as large and granular inclusions, which are visualized in infected brain tissues by immuno-microscopy using anti-N protein antibodies. In this study, we explored a mass spectrometry (MS) based method for N protein detection without the need for any specific antibody reagents or microscopy. The MS-based method described here is unbiased, label-free, requires no amplification and determines any previously sequenced N protein available in the database. The results demonstrate the ability of MS/MS based method for N protein detection and amino acid sequence determination in animal diagnostic samples to obtain RABV variant information. This study demonstrates a potential for future developments of rabies diagnostic tests based on MS platforms. Although rabies is almost always fatal after the symptom onset phase, it can be prevented by timely administration of post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP), which involves passive antibody transfer and vaccination. One of the primary laboratory confirmatory tests for RABV infection is antigen detection, directed against the RABV encoded N protein using anti-N protein specific antibodies, in central nervous system (CNS) tissue samples of animals. This immuno-microscopy based detection utilizes either fluorescent tags (direct detection) or chromogenic substrates (indirect) in brain impressions from animals in which rabies is suspected. In this study, we explored the detection of N protein by a novel mass spectrometry (MS) based method that is label-free and does not require target amplification. The MS method specifically detected N protein in brain tissue and identified RABV variants based on amino acid sequence information. To our knowledge, this is the first report of an N protein detection method that does not utilize either antibodies or microscopy. This method provides an alternative platform for the development of future rabies diagnostic tests.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew Reed
- Biotechnology Core Facility Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, United States of America
| | - Olga Stuchlik
- Biotechnology Core Facility Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, United States of America
| | - William C. Carson
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, United States of America
| | - Lillian Orciari
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, United States of America
| | - Pamela A. Yager
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, United States of America
| | - Victoria Olson
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, United States of America
| | - Yu Li
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, United States of America
| | - Xianfu Wu
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, United States of America
| | - Jan Pohl
- Biotechnology Core Facility Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, United States of America
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Realegeno S, Niezgoda M, Yager PA, Kumar A, Hoque L, Orciari L, Sambhara S, Olson VA, Satheshkumar PS. An ELISA-based method for detection of rabies virus nucleoprotein-specific antibodies in human antemortem samples. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0207009. [PMID: 30403742 PMCID: PMC6221316 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0207009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2018] [Accepted: 10/23/2018] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Rabies is a fatal encephalitic disease in humans and animals caused by lyssaviruses, most commonly rabies virus (RABV). Human antemortem diagnosis of rabies is a complex process involving multiple sample types and tests for the detection of antibodies, antigen (protein), and nucleic acids (genomic RNA). Serological diagnosis of human rabies includes the detection of either neutralizing or binding antibodies in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) or serum samples from unimmunized individuals without prior rabies vaccination or passive immunization with purified immunoglobulins. While neutralizing antibodies are targeted against the surface-expressed glycoprotein (G protein), binding antibodies to viral antigens are predominantly against the nucleoprotein (N protein), although there can be antibodies against all RABV-expressed proteins. To determine N protein-specific antibody responses in the CSF and serum during RABV infection, we developed an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) with purified recombinant N protein expressed in E. coli. N protein-specific immunoglobulin (Ig) subtypes IgG and IgM were detected in the CSF or serum of previously diagnosed human rabies cases. In addition, anti-N protein seroconversion was demonstrated over the course of illness in individual rabies cases. We compared the N protein ELISA results to those of an indirect fluorescent antibody (IFA) test, the current binding antibody assay used in diagnosis, and show that our ELISA is consistent with the IFA test. Sensitivity and specificity of the N protein ELISA ranged from 78.38-100% and 75.76-96.77% with respect to the IFA results. Our data provide evidence for the use of an N protein ELISA as an additional option for the detection of RABV-specific IgG or IgM antibodies in human CSF or serum specimens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan Realegeno
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Michael Niezgoda
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Pamela A. Yager
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Amrita Kumar
- Immunology and Pathogenesis Branch, Influenza Division, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Laboni Hoque
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Lillian Orciari
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Suryaprakash Sambhara
- Immunology and Pathogenesis Branch, Influenza Division, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Victoria A. Olson
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
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Clavijo A, Freire de Carvalho MH, Orciari LA, Velasco-Villa A, Ellison JA, Greenberg L, Yager PA, Green DB, Vigilato MA, Cosivi O, Del Rio-Vilas VJ. An inter- laboratory proficiency testing exercise for rabies diagnosis in Latin America and the Caribbean. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2017; 11:e0005427. [PMID: 28369139 PMCID: PMC5391118 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0005427] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2016] [Revised: 04/13/2017] [Accepted: 02/21/2017] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
The direct fluorescent antibody test (DFA), is performed in all rabies reference laboratories across Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC). Despite DFA being a critical capacity in the control of rabies, there is not a standardized protocol in the region. We describe the results of the first inter-laboratory proficiency exercise of national rabies laboratories in LAC countries as part of the regional efforts towards dog-maintained rabies elimination in the American region. Twenty three laboratories affiliated to the Ministries of Health and Ministries of Agriculture participated in this exercise. In addition, the laboratories completed an online questionnaire to assess laboratory practices. Answers to the online questionnaire indicated large variability in the laboratories throughput, equipment used, protocols availability, quality control standards and biosafety requirements. Our results will inform actions to improve and harmonize laboratory rabies capacities across LAC in support for the regional efforts towards elimination of dog-maintained rabies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alfonso Clavijo
- Pan American Foot-and-Mouth Disease Center, Pan American Health Organization, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | | | - Lillian A. Orciari
- National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Andres Velasco-Villa
- National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - James A. Ellison
- National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Lauren Greenberg
- National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Pamela A. Yager
- National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Douglas B. Green
- National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Marco A. Vigilato
- Pan American Foot-and-Mouth Disease Center, Pan American Health Organization, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Ottorino Cosivi
- Pan American Foot-and-Mouth Disease Center, Pan American Health Organization, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Victor J. Del Rio-Vilas
- Pan American Foot-and-Mouth Disease Center, Pan American Health Organization, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
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Boland TA, McGuone D, Jindal J, Rocha M, Cumming M, Rupprecht CE, Barbosa TFS, de Novaes Oliveira R, Chu CJ, Cole AJ, Kotait I, Kuzmina NA, Yager PA, Kuzmin IV, Hedley-Whyte ET, Brown CM, Rosenthal ES. Phylogenetic and epidemiologic evidence of multiyear incubation in human rabies. Ann Neurol 2014; 75:155-60. [PMID: 24038455 PMCID: PMC4118733 DOI: 10.1002/ana.24016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2013] [Revised: 08/01/2013] [Accepted: 08/19/2013] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Eight years after emigrating from Brazil, an otherwise healthy man developed rabies. An exposure prior to immigration was reported. Genetic analysis revealed a canine rabies virus variant found only in the patient's home country, and the patient had not traveled internationally since immigrating to the United States. We describe how epidemiological, phylogenetic, and viral sequencing data provided confirmation that rabies encephalomyelitis may present after a long, multiyear incubation period, a consideration that previously has been hypothesized without the ability to exclude a more recent exposure. Accordingly, rabies should be considered in the diagnosis of any acute encephalitis, myelitis, or encephalomyelitis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Torrey A Boland
- Department of Neurological Sciences, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL
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Dyer JL, Niezgoda M, Orciari LA, Yager PA, Ellison JA, Rupprecht CE. Evaluation of an indirect rapid immunohistochemistry test for the differentiation of rabies virus variants. J Virol Methods 2013; 190:29-33. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jviromet.2013.03.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2012] [Revised: 03/06/2013] [Accepted: 03/11/2013] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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Kuzmin IV, Shi M, Orciari LA, Yager PA, Velasco-Villa A, Kuzmina NA, Streicker DG, Bergman DL, Rupprecht CE. Molecular inferences suggest multiple host shifts of rabies viruses from bats to mesocarnivores in Arizona during 2001-2009. PLoS Pathog 2012; 8:e1002786. [PMID: 22737076 PMCID: PMC3380930 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1002786] [Citation(s) in RCA: 119] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2012] [Accepted: 05/18/2012] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
In nature, rabies virus (RABV; genus Lyssavirus, family Rhabdoviridae) represents an assemblage of phylogenetic lineages, associated with specific mammalian host species. Although it is generally accepted that RABV evolved originally in bats and further shifted to carnivores, mechanisms of such host shifts are poorly understood, and examples are rarely present in surveillance data. Outbreaks in carnivores caused by a RABV variant, associated with big brown bats, occurred repeatedly during 2001–2009 in the Flagstaff area of Arizona. After each outbreak, extensive control campaigns were undertaken, with no reports of further rabies cases in carnivores for the next several years. However, questions remained whether all outbreaks were caused by a single introduction and further perpetuation of bat RABV in carnivore populations, or each outbreak was caused by an independent introduction of a bat virus. Another question of concern was related to adaptive changes in the RABV genome associated with host shifts. To address these questions, we sequenced and analyzed 66 complete and 20 nearly complete RABV genomes, including those from the Flagstaff area and other similar outbreaks in carnivores, caused by bat RABVs, and representatives of the major RABV lineages circulating in North America and worldwide. Phylogenetic analysis demonstrated that each Flagstaff outbreak was caused by an independent introduction of bat RABV into populations of carnivores. Positive selection analysis confirmed the absence of post-shift changes in RABV genes. In contrast, convergent evolution analysis demonstrated several amino acids in the N, P, G and L proteins, which might be significant for pre-adaptation of bat viruses to cause effective infection in carnivores. The substitution S/T242 in the viral glycoprotein is of particular merit, as a similar substitution was suggested for pathogenicity of Nishigahara RABV strain. Roles of the amino acid changes, detected in our study, require additional investigations, using reverse genetics and other approaches. Host shifts of the rabies virus (RABV) from bats to carnivores are important for our understanding of viral evolution and emergence, and have significant public health implications, particularly for the areas where “terrestrial” rabies has been eliminated. In this study we addressed several rabies outbreaks in carnivores that occurred in the Flagstaff area of Arizona during 2001–2009, and caused by the RABV variant associated with big brown bats (Eptesicus fuscus). Based on phylogenetic analysis we demonstrated that each outbreak resulted from a separate introduction of bat RABV into populations of carnivores. No post-shift changes in viral genomes were detected under the positive selection analysis. Trying to answer the question why certain bat RABV variants are capable for host shifts to carnivores and other variants are not, we developed a convergent evolution analysis, and implemented it for multiple RABV lineages circulating worldwide. This analysis identified several amino acids in RABV proteins which may facilitate host shifts from bats to carnivores. Precise roles of these amino acids require additional investigations, using reverse genetics and animal experimentation. In general, our approach and the results obtained can be used for prediction of host shifts and emergence of other zoonotic pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivan V Kuzmin
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America.
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9
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Velasco-Villa A, Reeder SA, Orciari LA, Yager PA, Franka R, Blanton JD, Zuckero L, Hunt P, Oertli EH, Robinson LE, Rupprecht CE. Enzootic rabies elimination from dogs and reemergence in wild terrestrial carnivores, United States. Emerg Infect Dis 2009; 14:1849-54. [PMID: 19046506 PMCID: PMC2634643 DOI: 10.3201/eid1412.080876] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
To provide molecular and virologic evidence that domestic dog rabies is no longer enzootic to the United States and to identify putative relatives of dog-related rabies viruses (RVs) circulating in other carnivores, we studied RVs associated with recent and historic dog rabies enzootics worldwide. Molecular, phylogenetic, and epizootiologic evidence shows that domestic dog rabies is no longer enzootic to the United States. Nonetheless, our data suggest that independent rabies enzootics are now established in wild terrestrial carnivores (skunks in California and north-central United States, gray foxes in Texas and Arizona, and mongooses in Puerto Rico), as a consequence of different spillover events from long-term rabies enzootics associated with dogs. These preliminary results highlight the key role of dog RVs and human-dog demographics as operative factors for host shifts and disease reemergence into other important carnivore populations and highlight the need for the elimination of dog-related RVs worldwide.
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Rudd RJ, Smith JS, Yager PA, Orciari LA, Trimarchi CV. A need for standardized rabies-virus diagnostic procedures: Effect of cover-glass mountant on the reliability of antigen detection by the fluorescent antibody test. Virus Res 2005; 111:83-8. [PMID: 15896406 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2005.03.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
The direct fluorescent antibody test is a sensitive and specific procedure used in the routine diagnosis of rabies. However, given the critical role of the rabies diagnostic laboratory in patient management and public health decision-making, the use of a standardized national rabies diagnostic procedure is highly recommended. Seemingly small variations in test procedures may have dramatic effects on sensitivity. For example, two independent reports of diminished staining performance of two lots of a commercial anti-rabies conjugate were investigated in this study. The diminished staining occurred only with a single rabies-virus variant, associated with big brown bats, Eptesicus fuscus, in the southwestern United States. Similarly diluted and prepared diagnostic reagents provided bright staining on all other variants of rabies-virus tested. Subsequent evaluation disclosed that the phenomenon was associated with the relative concentrations of glycerol used in the mounting media by the reporting laboratories. These findings, related to the proper selection of an optimal cover-glass mountant for use in the immunofluorescence procedure, demonstrate the potential for erroneous results with severe implications for patient health, when uncontrolled variations in protocol occur. This paper underscores the necessity for all rabies diagnostic laboratories to follow one standard protocol. Such a protocol has been placed on the websites maintained by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: .
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert J Rudd
- Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, Box 509, Albany, NY 12201-0509, USA.
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11
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Abstract
Mokola virus, a rabies-related virus, has been reported to date from the African continent only. Like rabies virus, it is highly pathogenic, causes acute encephalitis, and zoonotic events have been documented. Although believed to be rare, there has been an unexplained increase in the number of isolations of the virus in South Africa in recent years. We have cloned and sequenced the glycoprotein (G) and nucleoprotein (N) genes from a South African Mokola virus, and used these in the construction of different DNA vaccines for immunization against Mokola virus. Four vaccines, utilizing different promoters and DNA backbone compositions, were generated and compared for efficacy in protection against Mokola virus. In one of these, both the Mokola virus G and N genes were co-expressed. Two of the single G-expressing DNA vaccines (based on pSG5 and pCI-neo, respectively) protected laboratory mice against lethal challenge, despite major differences in their promoters. However, neither vaccine was fully protective in a single immunization only. Serological assays confirmed titers of virus-neutralizing antibodies after immunization, which increased upon booster vaccine administration. A third construct (based on pBudCE4) was less effective in inducing a protective immune response, despite employing a strong CMV enhancer/promoter also used in the pCI-neo plasmid. Dual expression of Mokola virus G and N genes in pBudCE4 did not enhance its efficacy, under the conditions described. In addition, no significant utility could be demonstrated for a combined prime-boost approach, as no cross-protective immunity was observed against rabies or Mokola viruses from the use of pSG5-mokG or vaccinia-rabies glycoprotein recombinant virus vaccines, respectively, even though both vaccines provided 60-100% protection against homologous virus challenge.
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Affiliation(s)
- L H Nel
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Rabies Section MS-G33, 1600 Clifton road NE, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA.
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12
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Abstract
Most human rabies deaths in the United States can be attributed to unrecognized exposures to rabies viruses associated with bats, particularly those associated with two infrequently encountered bat species (Lasionycteris noctivagans and Pipistrellus subflavus). These human rabies cases tend to cluster in the southeastern and northwestern United States. In these regions, most rabies deaths associated with bats in nonhuman terrestrial mammals are also associated with virus variants specific to these two bat species rather than more common bat species; outside of these regions, more common bat rabies viruses contribute to most transmissions. The preponderance of rabies deaths connected with the two uncommon L. noctivagans and P. subflavus bat rabies viruses is best explained by their evolution of increased viral infectivity.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jean S. Smith
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | | | - Pamela A. Yager
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
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13
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Abstract
This study investigated the safety, efficacy, and clearance of SAG-2, an attentuated rabies virus, after oral vaccination in dogs. Nineteen dogs consumed baits containing lyophilized vaccine, but residual SAG-2 virus was recovered in only one of 57 oral swabs, collected one hour post-vaccination. Seven vaccinates were euthanized between 24 and 96 h after consuming a bait. Rabies virus RNA was detected in tonsils from all seven dogs by nested RT-PCR, with primers to the viral glycoprotein. Genomic, sense-transcripts, and m-RNAs were detected in five of seven tonsil samples using primers to the rabies virus nucleoprotein gene, as well as in four of seven samples from the buccal mucosa and one of seven from the tongue. Rabies virus antigen was detected in all tonsils by an immunohistochemistry test, confirming the RT-PCR results. In addition, virus was isolated from one tonsil sample collected at 96 h, providing supportive evidence of viral replication. Ten of 12 (83%) of the vaccinated dogs demonstrated an anamnestic response, with viral neutralizing antibody titers (> or =0.5 IU/ml), after rabies virus challenge. These ten dogs survived, whereas all control dogs succumbed to rabies. Attenuated rabies viruses, such as SAG-2, replicate in local tissues of the oral cavity and can be cleared relatively quickly, without viral excretion, leading to protective immunity against the disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- L A Orciari
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Division of Viral and Rickettsial Diseases, Viral and Rickettsial Zoonoses Branch, Rabies Section, Mailstop G-33, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA.
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14
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McQuiston JH, Yager PA, Smith JS, Rupprecht CE. Epidemiologic characteristics of rabies virus variants in dogs and cats in the United States, 1999. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2001; 218:1939-42. [PMID: 11417737 DOI: 10.2460/javma.2001.218.1939] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To evaluate epidemiologic features of rabies virus variants in dogs and cats in the United States during 1999 and assess the role of bat-associated variants. DESIGN Epidemiologic survey. SAMPLE POPULATION Rabies viruses from 78 dogs and 230 cats. PROCEDURE Brain specimens from rabid dogs and cats were submitted for typing of rabies virus. Historical information, including ownership and vaccination status, was obtained for each animal. Specimens were typed by use of indirect fluorescent antibody assay or reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction assay and nucleotide sequence analysis. RESULTS Nearly all animals were infected with the predicted terrestrial rabies virus variant associated with the geographic location of the submission. A bat-associated variant of rabies virus was found in a single cat from Maryland. More than half (53%) of submitted animals were classified as owned animals, and most had no known history of vaccination. One vaccination failure was reported in a dog that did not receive a booster dose of rabies vaccine after exposure to a possibly rabid animal. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Bat-associated rabies virus variants were not a common cause of rabies in dogs and cats during 1999. Vaccine failures were uncommon during the study period. Because most rabid dogs and cats were unvaccinated and were owned animals rather than strays, educational campaigns targeting owners may be useful.
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Affiliation(s)
- J H McQuiston
- Division of Viral and Rickettsial Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA
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15
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Warner CK, Zaki SR, Shieh WJ, Whitfield SG, Smith JS, Orciari LA, Shaddock JH, Niezgoda M, Wright CW, Goldsmith CS, Sanderlin DW, Yager PA, Rupprecht CE. Laboratory investigation of human deaths from vampire bat rabies in Peru. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1999; 60:502-7. [PMID: 10466985 DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.1999.60.502] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
In the spring of 1996, multiple cases of an acute febrile illness resulting in several deaths in remote locations in Peru were reported to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). The clinical syndromes for these cases included dysphagia and encephalitis. Because bat bites were a common occurrence in the affected areas, the initial clinical diagnosis was rabies. However, rabies was discounted primarily because of reported patient recovery. Samples of brain tissue from two of the fatal cases were received at CDC for laboratory confirmation of the rabies diagnosis. An extensive array of tests on the formalin-fixed tissues confirmed the presence of both rabies viral antigen and nucleic acid. The virus was shown to be most closely related to a vampire bat rabies isolate. These results indicate the importance of maintaining rabies in the differential diagnosis of acute febrile encephalitis, particularly in areas where exposure to vampire bats may occur.
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Affiliation(s)
- C K Warner
- Rabies Section, Viral and Rickettsial Zoonoses Branch, and Infectious Disease and Pathology Activity, Division of Viral and Rickettsial Diseases, National Center for Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
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16
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Briggs DJ, Smith JS, Mueller FL, Schwenke J, Davis RD, Gordon CR, Schweitzer K, Orciari LA, Yager PA, Rupprecht CE. A comparison of two serological methods for detecting the immune response after rabies vaccination in dogs and cats being exported to rabies-free areas. Biologicals 1998; 26:347-55. [PMID: 10403038 DOI: 10.1006/biol.1998.0162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Levels of rabies virus neutralizing antibody in sera from dogs and cats were titrated to endpoint by the Rapid Fluorescent Focus Inhibition Test (RFFIT) and retested by the RFFIT and the Fluorescent Antibody Virus Neutralization test (FAVN). The two tests were compared for their ability to detect the 0.5 international units/ml (I.U.) of antibody required by the World Health Organization and the Office International des Epizooties as the minimum response for proof of rabies immunization. No difference was observed in sensitivity or specificity for either method in tests of 168 sera from unvaccinated animals or 70 sera from vaccinated animals with high levels of neutralizing antibody (an initial RFFIT titre of > or = 1.0 I.U.). Test to test variation occurred for results obtained by both RFFIT and FAVN for 95 sera from vaccinated animals with low to moderate levels of neutralizing antibody (RFFIT titre < 1.0 I.U.). No significant differences were detected for the 95 sera in the frequency for one methodology more often than the other to have a positive response (> or = 0.5 I.U.), nor were significant differences detected for the symmetry (P = 0.43) or the marginal homogeneity (P = 0.39) of results obtained by the two methods. Both methods can adequately identity unvaccinated animals, but false positive and false negative results are possible for either method when a single test is used to measure the antibody response of low-responding vaccinated animals. Nucleotide sequence analysis identified several amino acid differences in stocks of the challenge rabies virus from different laboratories. The small differences in neutralizing antibody titre that may result from mutations in the challenge virus are not important for evaluating immunity induced by vaccines which are themselves prepared from a variety of different rabies virus strains, but differences in the challenge virus, rather than differences in methodology, may account for at least some of the discrepant results reported in inter-laboratory surveys. Comparative studies of serological methods for measuring rabies antibodies should use well-characterized unpassaged virus stocks obtained from a single reference laboratory.
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Affiliation(s)
- D J Briggs
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine/Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan 66506, USA
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18
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Smith JS, Yager PA, Orciari LA. Rabies in wild and domestic carnivores of Africa: epidemiological and historical associations determined by limited sequence analysis. Onderstepoort J Vet Res 1993; 60:307-14. [PMID: 7777316] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Virus isolates from three important reservoirs for rabies in Africa (domestic dogs, jackals and yellow mongooses) were compared by their reaction with a panel of monoclonal antibodies directed to the nucleocapsid protein and by the nucleotide sequence of a 200 base pair segment of the nucleocapsid gene. Although antigenically dissimilar, the variants commonly transmitted in dogs and jackals were very closely related by genetic analysis. Phylogenetic analysis and historical accounts support a common lineage for these variants in both past and present reservoirs for rabies in Europe. Two additional variants, distinct from the dog or jackal variant, were found in yellow mongoose samples and nucleotide sequence from these animals showed more divergence than any other group of samples. These variants and a third variant for which no host species could be identified, were shown to form two additional genetic groups only distantly related to each other. These three variants and a previously identified variant in Nigeria may be indigenous to African carnivores.
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Affiliation(s)
- J S Smith
- Viral and Rickettsial Zoonosis Branch, Centres for Disease Control, Atlanta, Georgia 30333
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19
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Smith JS, Orciari LA, Yager PA, Seidel HD, Warner CK. Epidemiologic and historical relationships among 87 rabies virus isolates as determined by limited sequence analysis. J Infect Dis 1992; 166:296-307. [PMID: 1634801 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/166.2.296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 180] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Nucleotide sequence analysis of a 200-bp region of the nucleoprotein (N) gene of rabies virus differentiated unique genetic groups of rabies virus from samples collected in areas where dog rabies is enzootic in Asia, Africa, Europe, and the Americas. Patterns of nucleotide sequence identified for an outbreak area were conserved in samples collected over three decades. Epidemiologic relationships among isolates were determined by patterns of conserved nucleotide sequence, and the degree of sequence divergence between samples from separate outbreak areas were measured. This approach suggested that a historical reconstruction of events leading to the introduction of rabies into an area would be possible. In this broader view of rabies epidemiology, the cultural legacy of European exploration and colonization may have also included zoonotic disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- J S Smith
- Rabies Laboratory, Centers for Disease Control, Atlanta, Georgia 30333
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20
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Abstract
Brain tissues from 128 rabid animals from Florida in 1987 and 1988 were analyzed with monoclonal antibodies and cases were mapped by species and antigenic variant. The single variant found in terrestrial animals was distinguished easily from the variety of antigenic variants identified for infected bats, and there was no evidence of transmission of rabies between bats and terrestrial animals. The raccoon (Procyon lotor) appeared to be the sole maintenance source for terrestrial animal rabies in Florida.
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Affiliation(s)
- J S Smith
- Division of Viral and Rickettsial Diseases, Centers for Disease Control, Atlanta, Georgia 30333
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21
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Fishbein DB, Dreesen DW, Holmes DF, Pacer RE, Ley AB, Yager PA, Sumner JW, Reid-Sanden FL, Sanderlin DW, Tong TC. Human diploid cell rabies vaccine purified by zonal centrifugation: a controlled study of antibody response and side effects following primary and booster pre-exposure immunizations. Vaccine 1989; 7:437-42. [PMID: 2815979 DOI: 10.1016/0264-410x(89)90159-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Systemic allergic reactions following booster immunizations have complicated rabies pre-exposure prophylaxis with the human diploid cell rabies vaccine licensed in the US (conventional HDCV). We conducted two studies comparing an HDCV purified by zonal centrifugation to conventional HDCV. In a study of primary pre-exposure immunization, volunteers received one of four regimens: three 1.0-ml intramuscular (i.m.) or 0.1-ml intradermal (i.d.) doses of conventional or purified HDCV over 28 days. Although volunteers vaccinated i.m. had significantly greater rabies neutralizing antibody titres (VNA) 49 days, 91 days and 26 months after immunization began than volunteers vaccinated i.d. (p less than 0.005-p less than 0.05), there were no significant differences between vaccines. In a study of booster immunizations, 77 volunteers immunized with conventional HDCV 2 years earlier received a 0.1-ml i.d. booster with either conventional or purified HDCV. VNA was significantly greater with the conventional HDCV on days 7 and 28 after booster, but not on day 365. A moderate or severe reaction was reported by 5 (13%) of the 40 persons who received boosters with conventional HDCV, versus none of 37 who received the purified HDCV (p = 0.03). Purified HDCV appears to be preferable to conventional HDCV for booster vaccination.
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Affiliation(s)
- D B Fishbein
- Division of Viral Disease, Center for Infectious Diseases, Atlanta, GA 30333
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22
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Mannen K, Mifune K, Reid-Sanden FL, Smith JS, Yager PA, Sumner JW, Fishbein DB, Tong TC, Baer GM. Microneutralization test for rabies virus based on an enzyme immunoassay. J Clin Microbiol 1987; 25:2440-2. [PMID: 3323234 PMCID: PMC269515 DOI: 10.1128/jcm.25.12.2440-2442.1987] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
We have developed an enzyme immunoassay for rabies virus by using acetone-fixed infected cell cultures as the antigen. This test was used to demonstrate virus-neutralizing antibodies in human and animal sera and was as sensitive as and easier to perform than the rapid fluorescent-focus inhibition technique.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Mannen
- Department of Microbiology, Medical College of Oita, Japan
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23
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Suntharasamai P, Warrell MJ, Warrell DA, Chanthavanich P, Looareesuwan S, Supapochana A, Phanuphak P, Jittapalapongsa S, Yager PA, Baer GM. Early antibody responses to rabies post-exposure vaccine regimens. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1987; 36:160-5. [PMID: 3812881 DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.1987.36.160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The aim of post-exposure rabies vaccine treatment is to induce immunity, measured as neutralizing antibody, as fast as possible. This is especially important in the tropical rabies-endemic areas where simultaneous passive prophylaxis with hyperimmune serum is not practicable in the majority of cases. We compared the rate of production of antibody during the first two weeks, by six vaccine regimens in 118 subjects using two tissue culture vaccines, human diploid cell strain vaccine (HDCSV) and purified Vero cell rabies vaccine (PVRV). No antibody was detected on day 5. On day 7, the highest seroconversion rate was seen in subjects given HDCSV intramuscularly at two sites on days 0 and 3 (7 of 15), but this was not significantly different from the group with the lowest rate: the conventional single-site intramuscular regimen. All subjects had antibody by day 14, at which time the highest geometric mean titer was in the group vaccinated with 0.25 ml doses of diploid cell vaccine given subcutaneously at eight sites. This regimen, together with the standard single-site diploid cell vaccine and an eight-site intradermal regimen of the same product gave significantly higher titers than the two-site intramuscular regimens of either product. No single immunization schedule emerges as best, so the speed of antibody response, economy, and the skill needed for intradermal injection should be considered when deciding on the optimum regimen for use in a particular geographic area.
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Smith JS, Yager PA, Baer GM. Minimal interferon induction in dogs, using a modified polyriboinosinic-polyribocytidylic acid complex. Am J Vet Res 1980; 41:1833-5. [PMID: 6163381] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Adult Beagles failed to respond to high concentrations of interferon (IF) when they were injected with a nuclease-resistant complex poly I:C with poly-L-lysine and carboxymethylcellulose (PICLC), by the IV or intrathecal route. An IV dose of 1 mg of PICLC/kg of body weight was lethal to 1 of 3 adult dogs, but induced IF in only 2 dogs. Smaller doses were less toxic, but also were less effective. The injection of a high dose of a known IF inducer (3 X 10(8) egg LD50 of Newcastle disease virus) also failed to induce IF in Beagles. Interferon could not be induced in vitro when primary cultures of neonatal dog lung or kidney were treated with cultures of neonatal dog lung or kidney were treated with PICLC. When these primary cell cultures were compared with the cell line Madin-Darby canine kidney in an IF assay, no difference in sensitivity to IF-induced protection from infection with vesicular stomatitis virus could be shown. This indicated that the sensitivity of the Madin-Darby cell line was not the only factor in determining the lack of IF response in dogs and indicates that the dogs are poor responders to IF induction.
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Smith JS, Yager PA, Baer GM. MINIMAL INTERFERON INDUCTION IN DOGS AFTER USE OF A POTENT INDUCER. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1980. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.1980.tb20659.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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26
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Hafkin B, Hattwick MA, Smith JS, Alls ME, Yager PA, Corey L, Hoke CH, Baer GM. A comparison of a WI-38 vaccine and duck embryo vaccine for preexposure rabies prophylaxis. Am J Epidemiol 1978; 107:439-43. [PMID: 352142 DOI: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a112562] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Two types of rabies vaccine, WI-38 vaccine (WRV) and Duck Embryo Vaccine (DEV) were compared in rabies preexposure prophylaxis. Once group of veterinary students received four doses of DEV, a second group received four doses of WRV, and a third group received two doses of WRV. Adverse reactions were found to be similar for all three gorups. The antibody responses, however, differed markedly: the mean neutralizing titer after four doses of DEV was 1:75, after four doses of WRV was 1:1517, but was only 1:164 after two doses of WRV. All students who received three or four doses of WRV developed high titers of rabies antibody, making this vaccine very desirable for preexposure prophylaxis.
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27
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Baer GM, Shaddock JH, Moore SA, Yager PA, Baron SS, Levy HB. Successful prophylaxis against rabies in mice and Rhesus monkeys: the interferon system and vaccine. J Infect Dis 1977; 136:286-91. [PMID: 408427 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/136.2.286] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Addition of interferon to ineffective rabies virus vaccines by the local injection of either exogenous interferon or a potent interferon inducer (a complex of polyriboinosinic-polyribocytidylic acid containing poly-L-lysine and carboxymethylcellulose) into the footpads of mice previously challenged with rabies virus dramatically reduced the mortality rate. A significant reduction in mortality rate was also noted when the interferon system was administered to rhesus monkeys, but only when treatment was given 6 hr after challenge with rabies virus. Since the monkeys were given an overwhelming challenge of virus, the treatment had to be given quickly to obtain results comparable to those in mice.
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28
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Baer GM, Yager PA. A mouse model for post-exposure rabies prophylaxis: the comparative efficacy of two vaccines and of antiserum administration. J Gen Virol 1977; 36:51-8. [PMID: 886303 DOI: 10.1099/0022-1317-36-1-51] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
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Abstract
The acute and convalescent sera from 14 schoolchildren with acute hepatitis A were tested for antibody changes to 70 viral antigens. Marked decreases were noted in the levels of antibody to cytomegalovirus in 5 of the 14 children and in the levels of antibody to herpesvirus type 1 in 3. No such changes were noted in 9 sex- and age-matched healthy control children from the same classes.
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Abstract
Foxes developed serum neutralizing antibodies to rabies only after oral administration of an attenuated rabies vaccine, and not when a similar vaccine dose was introduced into the stomach. These results emphasize the need for a bait that assures delivery of a vaccine dose orally.
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31
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Diaz AM, Yager PA, Baer GM. Rapid cytopathic effect with rabies virus in fused hamster embryo cells. Arch Gesamte Virusforsch 1973; 43:297-303. [PMID: 4132691 DOI: 10.1007/bf01556145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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32
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Smith JS, Yager PA, Baer GM. A rapid reproducible test for determining rabies neutralizing antibody. Bull World Health Organ 1973; 48:535-41. [PMID: 4544144 PMCID: PMC2482941] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Rabies neutralizing antibody levels in human and animal sera were tested by a rapid fluorescent focus inhibition technique, in which BHK-21 cells were infected with tissue-culture-adapted rabiesvirus. The results, obtained in 24 hours, were comparable with those of the standard mouse neutralization test.
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