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Ahmad I, Kaur M, Tyagi D, Singh TB, Kaur G, Afzal SM, Jauhar M. Exploring novel insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying Bisphenol A-induced toxicity: A persistent threat to human health. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND PHARMACOLOGY 2024; 108:104467. [PMID: 38763439 DOI: 10.1016/j.etap.2024.104467] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2024] [Revised: 04/09/2024] [Accepted: 05/11/2024] [Indexed: 05/21/2024]
Abstract
Bisphenol A (BPA) is a ubiquitous industrial chemical used in the production of polycarbonate plastics and epoxy resins, found in numerous consumer products. Despite its widespread use, its potential adverse health effects have raised significant concerns. This review explores the molecular mechanisms and evidence-based literature underlying BPA-induced toxicities and its implications for human health. BPA is an endocrine-disrupting chemical (EDC) which exhibits carcinogenic properties by influencing various receptors, such as ER, AhR, PPARs, LXRs, and RARs. It induces oxidative stress and contributes to cellular dysfunction, inflammation, and DNA damage, ultimately leading to various toxicities including but not limited to reproductive, cardiotoxicity, neurotoxicity, and endocrine toxicity. Moreover, BPA can modify DNA methylation patterns, histone modifications, and non-coding RNA expression, leading to epigenetic changes and contribute to carcinogenesis. Overall, understanding molecular mechanisms of BPA-induced toxicity is crucial for developing effective strategies and policies to mitigate its adverse effects on human health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Israel Ahmad
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Lovely Professional University, Jalandhar-Delhi G.T. Road, Phagwara, Punjab, India.
| | - Mandeep Kaur
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Lovely Professional University, Jalandhar-Delhi G.T. Road, Phagwara, Punjab, India.
| | - Devansh Tyagi
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Lovely Professional University, Jalandhar-Delhi G.T. Road, Phagwara, Punjab, India.
| | - Tejinder Bir Singh
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Lovely Professional University, Jalandhar-Delhi G.T. Road, Phagwara, Punjab, India.
| | - Gurpreet Kaur
- School of Business Studies, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, Punjab, India.
| | - Shaikh Mohammad Afzal
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Lovely Professional University, Jalandhar-Delhi G.T. Road, Phagwara, Punjab, India.
| | - Mohsin Jauhar
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Lovely Professional University, Jalandhar-Delhi G.T. Road, Phagwara, Punjab, India.
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Feng Q, Liu Y, Zou L, Lei M, Zhu C, Xia W. Fluorene-9-bisphenol exposure damages the testis in mice through a novel mechanism of ferroptosis. Food Chem Toxicol 2024; 184:114385. [PMID: 38123054 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2023.114385] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2023] [Revised: 11/25/2023] [Accepted: 12/12/2023] [Indexed: 12/23/2023]
Abstract
Fluorene-9-bisphenol (BHPF) is an emerging global endocrine-disrupting chemical found in numerous household products as a substitute of bisphenol A. Many studies have reported various toxicities associated with BHPF. However, the effect of BHPF on male reproduction, particularly on the structural integrity of the blood testis barrier (BTB) in mice, has not yet been extensively studied. Ferroptosis, a newly identified form of cell death, occurs in the testicular tissue following exposure to BPA, affecting male fertility. We investigated whether ferroptosis plays a role in BHPF-induced testicular damage. The findings indicated that BHPF exposure led decreases in serum testosterone (T) concentration and sperm concentration and motility in mice. Furthermore, BHPF disrupted the BTB by interfering with key BTB-related proteins, including Cx43, β-catenin, and ZO-1. Moreover, BHPF induced ferroptosis through the induction of lipid peroxidation, iron overload, oxidative stress, and mitochondrial dysfunction in the testicular tissue. Inhibition of ferroptosis using Fer-1 mitigated the BHPF-induced damage to the BTB and ferroptosis in TM4 cells. Overall, our findings indicated the detrimental effects of BHPF on male reproductive function in mice, suggesting ferroptosis as a mechanism underlying testicular damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiwen Feng
- Institute of Reproductive Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430030, People's Republic of China
| | - Yumeng Liu
- Institute of Reproductive Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430030, People's Republic of China
| | - Liping Zou
- Institute of Reproductive Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430030, People's Republic of China
| | - Mengying Lei
- Institute of Reproductive Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430030, People's Republic of China
| | - Changhong Zhu
- Institute of Reproductive Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430030, People's Republic of China
| | - Wei Xia
- Institute of Reproductive Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430030, People's Republic of China.
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Xu H, Li Y, Li Q, Ma Z, Yin S, He H, Xiong Y, Xiong X, Lan D, Li J, Fu W. Cloning and Characterization of Yak DHODH Gene and Its Functional Studies in a Bisphenol S-Induced Ferroptosis Model of Fetal Fibroblasts. Animals (Basel) 2023; 13:3832. [PMID: 38136869 PMCID: PMC10740537 DOI: 10.3390/ani13243832] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2023] [Revised: 12/04/2023] [Accepted: 12/06/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Dihydroorotate dehydrogenase (DHODH) is a rate-limiting enzyme of de novo biosynthesis of pyrimidine. Although the involvement of DHODH in resisting ferroptosis has been successively reported in recent years, which greatly advanced the understanding of the mechanism of programmed cell death (PCD), the genetic sequence of the yak DHODH gene and its roles in ferroptosis are still unknown. For this purpose, we firstly cloned the coding region sequence of DHODH (1188 bp) from yak liver and conducted a characterization analysis of its predictive protein that consists of 395 amino acids. We found that the coding region of the yak DHODH gene presented high conservation among species. Second, the expression profile of the DHODH gene in various yak tissues was investigated using RT-qPCR. The results demonstrated that DHODH was widely expressed in different yak tissues, with particularly high levels in the spleen, heart, and liver. Third, to investigate the involvement of DHODH in regulating ferroptosis in cells, yak skin fibroblasts (YSFs) were isolated from fetuses. And then, bisphenol S (BPS) was used to induce the in vitro ferroptosis model of YSFs. We observed that BPS decreased the cell viability (CCK8) and membrane potential (JC-1) of YSFs in a dose-dependent manner and induced oxidative stress by elevating reactive oxygen species (ROS). Simultaneously, it was evident that BPS effectively augmented the indicators associated with ferroptosis (MDA and BODIPY staining) and reduced GSH levels. Importantly, the co-administration of Ferrostatin-1 (Fer), a potent inhibitor of ferroptosis, significantly alleviated the aforementioned markers, thereby confirming the successful induction of ferroptosis in YSFs by BPS. Finally, overexpression plasmids and siRNAs of the yak DHODH gene were designed and transfected respectively into BPS-cultured YSFs to modulate DHODH expression. The findings revealed that DHODH overexpression alleviated the occurrence of BPS-induced ferroptosis, while interference of DHODH intensified the ferroptosis process in YSFs. In summary, we successfully cloned the coding region of the yak DHODH gene, demonstrating its remarkable conservation across species. Moreover, using BPS-induced ferroptosis in YSFs as the model, the study confirmed the role of the DHODH gene in resisting ferroptosis in yaks. These results offer valuable theoretical foundations for future investigations into the functionality of the yak DHODH gene and the underlying mechanisms of ferroptosis in this species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongmei Xu
- Key Laboratory of Animal Science of National Ethnic Affairs Commission of China, Southwest Minzu University, Chengdu 610041, China; (H.X.); (Y.L.); (Q.L.); (Z.M.); (S.Y.); (H.H.); (Y.X.); (X.X.); (D.L.)
| | - Yueyue Li
- Key Laboratory of Animal Science of National Ethnic Affairs Commission of China, Southwest Minzu University, Chengdu 610041, China; (H.X.); (Y.L.); (Q.L.); (Z.M.); (S.Y.); (H.H.); (Y.X.); (X.X.); (D.L.)
| | - Qiao Li
- Key Laboratory of Animal Science of National Ethnic Affairs Commission of China, Southwest Minzu University, Chengdu 610041, China; (H.X.); (Y.L.); (Q.L.); (Z.M.); (S.Y.); (H.H.); (Y.X.); (X.X.); (D.L.)
| | - Zifeng Ma
- Key Laboratory of Animal Science of National Ethnic Affairs Commission of China, Southwest Minzu University, Chengdu 610041, China; (H.X.); (Y.L.); (Q.L.); (Z.M.); (S.Y.); (H.H.); (Y.X.); (X.X.); (D.L.)
| | - Shi Yin
- Key Laboratory of Animal Science of National Ethnic Affairs Commission of China, Southwest Minzu University, Chengdu 610041, China; (H.X.); (Y.L.); (Q.L.); (Z.M.); (S.Y.); (H.H.); (Y.X.); (X.X.); (D.L.)
- Key Laboratory of Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau Animal Genetic Resource Reservation and Utilization, Ministry of Education, Southwest Minzu University, Chengdu 610041, China
- Key Laboratory of Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau Animal Genetic Resource Reservation and Utilization, Sichuan Province, Southwest Minzu University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Honghong He
- Key Laboratory of Animal Science of National Ethnic Affairs Commission of China, Southwest Minzu University, Chengdu 610041, China; (H.X.); (Y.L.); (Q.L.); (Z.M.); (S.Y.); (H.H.); (Y.X.); (X.X.); (D.L.)
- Key Laboratory of Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau Animal Genetic Resource Reservation and Utilization, Ministry of Education, Southwest Minzu University, Chengdu 610041, China
- Key Laboratory of Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau Animal Genetic Resource Reservation and Utilization, Sichuan Province, Southwest Minzu University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Yan Xiong
- Key Laboratory of Animal Science of National Ethnic Affairs Commission of China, Southwest Minzu University, Chengdu 610041, China; (H.X.); (Y.L.); (Q.L.); (Z.M.); (S.Y.); (H.H.); (Y.X.); (X.X.); (D.L.)
- Key Laboratory of Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau Animal Genetic Resource Reservation and Utilization, Ministry of Education, Southwest Minzu University, Chengdu 610041, China
- Key Laboratory of Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau Animal Genetic Resource Reservation and Utilization, Sichuan Province, Southwest Minzu University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Xianrong Xiong
- Key Laboratory of Animal Science of National Ethnic Affairs Commission of China, Southwest Minzu University, Chengdu 610041, China; (H.X.); (Y.L.); (Q.L.); (Z.M.); (S.Y.); (H.H.); (Y.X.); (X.X.); (D.L.)
- Key Laboratory of Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau Animal Genetic Resource Reservation and Utilization, Ministry of Education, Southwest Minzu University, Chengdu 610041, China
- Key Laboratory of Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau Animal Genetic Resource Reservation and Utilization, Sichuan Province, Southwest Minzu University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Daoliang Lan
- Key Laboratory of Animal Science of National Ethnic Affairs Commission of China, Southwest Minzu University, Chengdu 610041, China; (H.X.); (Y.L.); (Q.L.); (Z.M.); (S.Y.); (H.H.); (Y.X.); (X.X.); (D.L.)
- Key Laboratory of Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau Animal Genetic Resource Reservation and Utilization, Ministry of Education, Southwest Minzu University, Chengdu 610041, China
- Key Laboratory of Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau Animal Genetic Resource Reservation and Utilization, Sichuan Province, Southwest Minzu University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Jian Li
- Key Laboratory of Animal Science of National Ethnic Affairs Commission of China, Southwest Minzu University, Chengdu 610041, China; (H.X.); (Y.L.); (Q.L.); (Z.M.); (S.Y.); (H.H.); (Y.X.); (X.X.); (D.L.)
- Key Laboratory of Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau Animal Genetic Resource Reservation and Utilization, Ministry of Education, Southwest Minzu University, Chengdu 610041, China
- Key Laboratory of Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau Animal Genetic Resource Reservation and Utilization, Sichuan Province, Southwest Minzu University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Wei Fu
- Key Laboratory of Animal Science of National Ethnic Affairs Commission of China, Southwest Minzu University, Chengdu 610041, China; (H.X.); (Y.L.); (Q.L.); (Z.M.); (S.Y.); (H.H.); (Y.X.); (X.X.); (D.L.)
- Key Laboratory of Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau Animal Genetic Resource Reservation and Utilization, Ministry of Education, Southwest Minzu University, Chengdu 610041, China
- Key Laboratory of Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau Animal Genetic Resource Reservation and Utilization, Sichuan Province, Southwest Minzu University, Chengdu 610041, China
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Bu H, Wang B, Wu Y, Li P, Cui Y, Jiang X, Yu X, Liu B, Tang M. Curcumin strengthens a spontaneous self-protective mechanism-SP1/PRDX6 pathway, against di-n-butyl phthalate-induced testicular ferroptosis damage. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2023; 30:122165-122181. [PMID: 37966654 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-023-30962-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2023] [Accepted: 11/05/2023] [Indexed: 11/16/2023]
Abstract
As one of the common plasticizers, di-n-butyl phthalate (DBP) has been using in various daily consumer products worldwide. Since it is easily released from products and exists in the environment for a long time, it has a lasting impact on human health, especially male reproductive health. However, the detailed mechanism of testicular damage from DBP and the protection strategy are still not clear enough. In this study, we found that DBP could induce dose-dependent ferroptosis in testicular tissue. Mechanism dissection indicates that DBP can upregulate SP1 expression, which could directly transcriptionally upregulate PRDX6, a negative regulator of ferroptosis. Overexpression of PRDX6 or adding SP1 agonist curcumin could suppress the DBP-induced ferroptosis on testicular cells. In vivo, rats were given 500 mg/kg/day DBP orally for 3 weeks; elevated levels of ferroptosis were detected in testicular tissue. When the above-mentioned doses of DBP and curcumin at a dose of 300 mg/kg/day were administered intragastrically simultaneously, the testicular ferroptosis induced by DBP was alleviated. Immunohistochemistry and quantitative real-time PCR of testis tissue showed that the expression of PRDX6 was upregulated under the action of DBP and curcumin. These findings suggest a spontaneous self-protection mechanism of testicular tissue from DBP damage by upregulating SP1 and PRDX6. However, it is not strong enough to resist the DBP-induced ferroptosis. Curcumin can strengthen this self-protection mechanism and weaken the level of ferroptosis induced by DBP. This study may help us to develop a novel therapeutic option with curcumin to protect the testicular tissue from ferroptosis and function impairment by DBP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hengtao Bu
- Department of Urology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, 210009, Jiangsu, China
| | - Bao Wang
- Department of Urology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, 210009, Jiangsu, China
| | - Yulin Wu
- Jiangsu Health Development Research Center, Nanjing, 210036, Jiangsu, China
- National Health and Family Planning Commission Contraceptives Adverse Reaction Surveillance Center, Nanjing, 210036, Jiangsu, China
| | - Pu Li
- Department of Urology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, 210009, Jiangsu, China
| | - Yankang Cui
- Department of Urology, Jinling Hospital, Affiliated Hospital of Medical School, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
| | - Xuping Jiang
- Department of Urology, Yixing People's Hospital, Yixing, 214200, China
| | - Xiaowen Yu
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Pediatrics, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, 210100, Jiangsu, China
| | - Bianjiang Liu
- Department of Urology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, 210009, Jiangsu, China
| | - Min Tang
- Department of Urology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, 210009, Jiangsu, China.
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Yuan W, Sun Z, Ji G, Hu H. Emerging roles of ferroptosis in male reproductive diseases. Cell Death Discov 2023; 9:358. [PMID: 37770442 PMCID: PMC10539319 DOI: 10.1038/s41420-023-01665-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2023] [Revised: 09/11/2023] [Accepted: 09/22/2023] [Indexed: 09/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Ferroptosis is a type of programmed cell death mediated by iron-dependent lipid peroxidation that leads to excessive lipid peroxidation in different cells. Ferroptosis is distinct from other forms of cell death and is associated with various diseases. Iron is essential for spermatogenesis and male reproductive function. Therefore, it is not surprising that new evidence supports the role of ferroptosis in testicular injury. Although the molecular mechanism by which ferroptosis induces disease is unknown, several genes and pathways associated with ferroptosis have been linked to testicular dysfunction. In this review, we discuss iron metabolism, ferroptosis, and related regulatory pathways. In addition, we analyze the endogenous and exogenous factors of ferroptosis in terms of iron metabolism and testicular dysfunction, as well as summarize the relationship between ferroptosis and male reproductive dysfunction. Finally, we discuss potential strategies to target ferroptosis for treating male reproductive diseases and provide new directions for preventing male reproductive diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenzheng Yuan
- Key Laboratory of Fertility Preservation, School of Life Sciences and Technologies, Sanquan College of Xinxiang Medical University, Xinxiang, 453003, Henan Province, PR China
- Institute of Life Sciences, China Medical University, Shenyang, 110122, Liaoning Province, PR China
| | - Zhibin Sun
- Key Laboratory of Fertility Preservation, School of Life Sciences and Technologies, Sanquan College of Xinxiang Medical University, Xinxiang, 453003, Henan Province, PR China
| | - Guojie Ji
- Key Laboratory of Fertility Preservation, School of Life Sciences and Technologies, Sanquan College of Xinxiang Medical University, Xinxiang, 453003, Henan Province, PR China.
| | - Huanhuan Hu
- Key Laboratory of Fertility Preservation, School of Life Sciences and Technologies, Sanquan College of Xinxiang Medical University, Xinxiang, 453003, Henan Province, PR China.
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Sze SCW, Zhang L, Zhang S, Lin K, Ng TB, Ng ML, Lee KF, Lam JKW, Zhang Z, Yung KKL. Aberrant Transferrin and Ferritin Upregulation Elicits Iron Accumulation and Oxidative Inflammaging Causing Ferroptosis and Undermines Estradiol Biosynthesis in Aging Rat Ovaries by Upregulating NF-Κb-Activated Inducible Nitric Oxide Synthase: First Demonstration of an Intricate Mechanism. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms232012689. [PMID: 36293552 PMCID: PMC9604315 DOI: 10.3390/ijms232012689] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2022] [Revised: 10/12/2022] [Accepted: 10/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
We report herein a novel mechanism, unraveled by proteomics and validated by in vitro and in vivo studies, of the aberrant aging-associated upregulation of ovarian transferrin and ferritin in rat ovaries. The ovarian mass and serum estradiol titer plummeted while the ovarian labile ferrous iron and total iron levels escalated with age in rats. Oxidative stress markers, such as nitrite/nitrate, 3-nitrotyrosine, and 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal, accumulated in the aging ovaries due to an aberrant upregulation of the ovarian transferrin, ferritin light/heavy chains, and iron regulatory protein 2(IRP2)-mediated transferrin receptor 1 (TfR1). Ferritin inhibited estradiol biosynthesis in ovarian granulosa cells in vitro via the upregulation of a nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB) and p65/p50-induced oxidative and inflammatory factor inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS). An in vivo study demonstrated how the age-associated activation of NF-κB induced the upregulation of iNOS and the tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα). The downregulation of the keap1-mediated nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2), that induced a decrease in glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPX4), was observed. The aberrant transferrin and ferritin upregulation triggered an iron accumulation via the upregulation of an IRP2-induced TfR1. This culminates in NF-κB-iNOS-mediated ovarian oxi-inflamm-aging and serum estradiol decrement in naturally aging rats. The iron accumulation and the effect on ferroptosis-related proteins including the GPX4, TfR1, Nrf2, Keap1, and ferritin heavy chain, as in testicular ferroptosis, indicated the triggering of ferroptosis. In young rats, an intraovarian injection of an adenovirus, which expressed iron regulatory proteins, upregulated the ovarian NF-κB/iNOS and downregulated the GPX4. These novel findings have contributed to a prompt translational research on the ovarian aging-associated iron metabolism and aging-associated ovarian diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen Cho Wing Sze
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Hong Kong Baptist University, Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR 999077, China
- Golden Meditech Center for NeuroRegeneration Sciences, Hong Kong Baptist University, Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR 999077, China
- Correspondence: (S.C.W.S.); (K.K.L.Y.); Tel.: +852-34112318 (S.C.W.S.); Tel.: +852-34117060 (K.K.L.Y.)
| | - Liang Zhang
- School of Chinese Medicine, LKS Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong SAR 999077, China
| | - Shiqing Zhang
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Hong Kong Baptist University, Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR 999077, China
- Golden Meditech Center for NeuroRegeneration Sciences, Hong Kong Baptist University, Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR 999077, China
- JNU-HKUST Joint Laboratory for Neuroscience and Innovative Drug Research, College of Pharmacy, Jinan University, Guangzhou 999077, China
| | - Kaili Lin
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Hong Kong Baptist University, Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR 999077, China
- Golden Meditech Center for NeuroRegeneration Sciences, Hong Kong Baptist University, Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR 999077, China
- School of Public Health, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou 999077, China
| | - Tzi Bun Ng
- School of Life Sciences, Faculty of Science, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, N.T., Hong Kong SAR 999077, China
| | - Man Ling Ng
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Hong Kong Baptist University, Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR 999077, China
- Golden Meditech Center for NeuroRegeneration Sciences, Hong Kong Baptist University, Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR 999077, China
| | - Kai-Fai Lee
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, LKS Faculty of Medicine, HKU, Pokfulam, Hong Kong SAR 999077, China
| | - Jenny Ka Wing Lam
- Department of Pharmaceutics, UCL School of Pharmacy, University College London, 29-39 Brunswick Square, London WC1N 1AX, UK
- Department of Pharmacology & Pharmacy, LKS Faculty of Medicine, HKU, Pokfulam, Hong Kong SAR 999077, China
| | - Zhang Zhang
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Hong Kong Baptist University, Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR 999077, China
- Golden Meditech Center for NeuroRegeneration Sciences, Hong Kong Baptist University, Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR 999077, China
| | - Ken Kin Lam Yung
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Hong Kong Baptist University, Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR 999077, China
- Golden Meditech Center for NeuroRegeneration Sciences, Hong Kong Baptist University, Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR 999077, China
- Correspondence: (S.C.W.S.); (K.K.L.Y.); Tel.: +852-34112318 (S.C.W.S.); Tel.: +852-34117060 (K.K.L.Y.)
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