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Luo M, Wang YM, Zhao FK, Luo Y. Recent Advances in Nanomaterial-Mediated Cell Death for Cancer Therapy. Adv Healthc Mater 2025; 14:e2402697. [PMID: 39498722 DOI: 10.1002/adhm.202402697] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2024] [Revised: 10/01/2024] [Indexed: 11/07/2024]
Abstract
Nanomedicine has shown great anticancer potential by disrupting redox homeostasis and increasing the levels of oxidative stress, but the therapeutic effect is limited by factors including the intrinsic self-protection mechanism of tumors. Cancer cell death can be induced by the exploration of different cell death mechanisms, such as apoptosis, pyroptosis, necroptosis, cuproptosis, and ferroptosis. The merging of nanotechnology with biomedicine has provided tremendous opportunities to construct cell death-based nanomedicine for innovative cancer therapy. Nanocarriers are not only used for the targeted delivery of cell death inducers, but also as therapeutic components to induce cell death to achieve efficient tumor treatment. This review focuses on seven cell death modalities mediated by nanomaterials, such as apoptosis, pyroptosis, necroptosis, ferroptosis, cuprotosis, immunogenic cell death, and autophagy. The mechanisms of these seven cell death modalities are described in detail, as well as the preparation of nanomaterials that induce them and the mechanisms, they used to exert their effects. Finally, this work describes the potential future development based on the current knowledge related to cell death induced by nanomaterials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min Luo
- Department of Clinical Medicine, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, The First People's Hospital of Zunyi, Zunyi, Guizhou, 563000, China
| | - Yuan-Min Wang
- Department of Clinical Medicine, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, The First People's Hospital of Zunyi, Zunyi, Guizhou, 563000, China
| | - Fu-Kun Zhao
- Department of Clinical Medicine, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, The First People's Hospital of Zunyi, Zunyi, Guizhou, 563000, China
| | - Yong Luo
- Department of Neurology, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, The First People's Hospital of Zunyi, Zunyi, Guizhou, 563000, China
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Schmölders J, Manske C, Otto A, Hoffmann C, Steiner B, Welin A, Becher D, Hilbi H. Comparative Proteomics of Purified Pathogen Vacuoles Correlates Intracellular Replication of Legionella pneumophila with the Small GTPase Ras-related protein 1 (Rap1). Mol Cell Proteomics 2017; 16:622-641. [PMID: 28183814 DOI: 10.1074/mcp.m116.063453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2016] [Revised: 01/24/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Legionella pneumophila is an opportunistic bacterial pathogen that causes a severe lung infection termed "Legionnaires' disease." The pathogen replicates in environmental protozoa as well as in macrophages within a unique membrane-bound compartment, the Legionella-containing-vacuole (LCV). LCV formation requires the bacterial Icm/Dot type IV secretion system, which translocates ca. 300 "effector proteins" into host cells, where they target distinct host factors. The L. pneumophila "pentuple" mutant (Δpentuple) lacks 5 gene clusters (31% of the effector proteins) and replicates in macrophages but not in Dictyostelium discoideum amoeba. To elucidate the host factors defining a replication-permissive compartment, we compare here the proteomes of intact LCVs isolated from D. discoideum or macrophages infected with Δpentuple or the parental strain Lp02. This analysis revealed that the majority of host proteins are shared in D. discoideum or macrophage LCVs containing the mutant or the parental strain, respectively, whereas some proteins preferentially localize to distinct LCVs. The small GTPase Rap1 was identified on D. discoideum LCVs containing strain Lp02 but not the Δpentuple mutant and on macrophage LCVs containing either strain. The localization pattern of active Rap1 on D. discoideum or macrophage LCVs was confirmed by fluorescence microscopy and imaging flow cytometry, and the depletion of Rap1 by RNA interference significantly reduced the intracellular growth of L. pneumophila Thus, comparative proteomics identified Rap1 as a novel LCV host component implicated in intracellular replication of L. pneumophila.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johanna Schmölders
- From the ‡Max von Pettenkofer Institute, Ludwig-Maximilians University, Munich, Germany
| | - Christian Manske
- From the ‡Max von Pettenkofer Institute, Ludwig-Maximilians University, Munich, Germany
| | - Andreas Otto
- §Institute for Microbiology, Ernst Moritz Arndt University, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Christine Hoffmann
- From the ‡Max von Pettenkofer Institute, Ludwig-Maximilians University, Munich, Germany
| | - Bernhard Steiner
- ¶Institute of Medical Microbiology, University of Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Amanda Welin
- ¶Institute of Medical Microbiology, University of Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Dörte Becher
- §Institute for Microbiology, Ernst Moritz Arndt University, Greifswald, Germany;
| | - Hubert Hilbi
- From the ‡Max von Pettenkofer Institute, Ludwig-Maximilians University, Munich, Germany; .,¶Institute of Medical Microbiology, University of Zürich, Switzerland
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Fox JL, Storey A. BMX Negatively Regulates BAK Function, Thereby Increasing Apoptotic Resistance to Chemotherapeutic Drugs. Cancer Res 2015; 75:1345-55. [PMID: 25649765 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-14-1340] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2014] [Accepted: 01/20/2015] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The ability of chemotherapeutic agents to induce apoptosis, predominantly via the mitochondrial (intrinsic) apoptotic pathway, is thought to be a major determinant of the sensitivity of a given cancer to treatment. Intrinsic apoptosis, regulated by the BCL2 family, integrates diverse apoptotic signals to determine cell death commitment and then activates the nodal effector protein BAK to initiate the apoptotic cascade. In this study, we identified the tyrosine kinase BMX as a direct negative regulator of BAK function. BMX associates with BAK in viable cells and is the first kinase to phosphorylate the key tyrosine residue needed to maintain BAK in an inactive conformation. Importantly, elevated BMX expression prevents BAK activation in tumor cells treated with chemotherapeutic agents and is associated with increased resistance to apoptosis and decreased patient survival. Accordingly, BMX expression was elevated in prostate, breast, and colon cancers compared with normal tissue, including in aggressive triple-negative breast cancers where BMX overexpression may be a novel biomarker. Furthermore, BMX silencing potentiated BAK activation, rendering tumor cells hypersensitive to otherwise sublethal doses of clinically relevant chemotherapeutic agents. Our finding that BMX directly inhibits a core component of the intrinsic apoptosis machinery opens opportunities to improve the efficacy of existing chemotherapy by potentiating BAK-driven cell death in cancer cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanna L Fox
- Department of Oncology, WIMM, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom.
| | - Alan Storey
- Department of Oncology, WIMM, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom.
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Azad A, Storey A. Chk1 activity is required for BAK multimerization in association with PUMA during mitochondrial apoptosis. Cell Commun Signal 2014; 12:42. [PMID: 25012639 PMCID: PMC4422300 DOI: 10.1186/s12964-014-0042-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2014] [Accepted: 06/18/2014] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The Bcl-2 protein BAK is a key player in mitochondrial apoptosis and responds to a myriad of different death signals. Activation of BAK is a multistep process that involves a number of conformational changes mediated by BH3-only proteins or p53 which leads to BAK multimerization and pore formation in the mitochondrial outer membrane. We previously reported that BAK activation is dependent upon dephosphorylation of both tyrosine and serine residues. Further, recent reports demonstrated that PP2A activity is required for BAK multimerization. Since Chk1, a checkpoint kinase involved in the activation of G2 checkpoint, is regulated by PP2A, we therefore hypothesized that Chk1 is involved in BAK multimerization during cell cycle arrest upon severe DNA damage. Findings We now show that treatment of HCT116-WT BAK cells with a Chk1 inhibitor impaired BAK dimerization and mutimerization when treated with the DNA damaging agents UV or etoposide. As a result there is a concomitant decrease of cytochrome c release from isolated mitochondria challenged with tBid protein and failure in the activation of caspase3. Interestingly, co-immunoprecipitation studies suggest that Chk1 is required for recruitment of BH3- only protein PUMA to BAK. We also showed that Chk1 is associated with BAK upon DNA damage. Conclusion These findings novelly demonstrate the involvement of a checkpoint kinase Chk1 is required for BAK activation and underscores the importance of involvement of Chk1 in mitochondrial apoptosis upon severe DNA damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abul Azad
- Department of Oncology, The Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX3 9DS, UK.
| | - Alan Storey
- Department of Oncology, The Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX3 9DS, UK.
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Azad A, Storey A. BAK multimerization for apoptosis, but not bid binding, is inhibited by negatively charged residue in the BAK hydrophobic groove. Mol Cancer 2013; 12:65. [PMID: 23782464 PMCID: PMC3688461 DOI: 10.1186/1476-4598-12-65] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2013] [Accepted: 06/05/2013] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Background BCL-2 family proteins BAK and BAX orchestrate outer mitochondrial membrane permeabilization (MOMP) during apoptosis by forming pores in the membrane to release apoptogenic factors that commits a cell to death. BAK and BAX therefore function as a ‘point of no return’ in the apoptotic cascade. BAK activation is a multi-step process involving conformational changes, mediated by BH3-only proteins or p53, which lead eventually to oligomerization and pore formation. Further, recent reports show that BAK activation is also linked to and dependent upon dephosphorylation of both tyrosine and serine residues. Findings We hypothesized that phosphorylation of BAK at tyrosine residue 110 (Y110) was functionally important during the BAK activation process. BAK/BAX double knockout HCT116 cells expressing a phosphor-mimetic BAK mutant (BAK Y110E), showed impaired dimerization and multimerization capacity when treated with either UV irradiation or etoposide when compared to cells reconstituted to express wild-type BAK. The Y110E mutant also showed decreased release of cytochrome c from isolated mitochondria challenged with tBid protein, resulting in a failure to activate caspase 3. Interestingly, co-immunoprecipitation experiments suggest that a negative charge at this residue may be important for the recruitment of Bid to BAK, but conversely that this also impairs BAK:BAK interactions. Conclusion These findings implicate dephosphorylation of Y110 as having an important mechanistic role in BAK activation, and underscores how post-translational modifications are intimately linked and coupled to the protein-protein interactions required for BAK activation during apoptosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abul Azad
- Department of Oncology, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 9DS, UK
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Tran VH, Bartolo R, Westphal D, Alsop A, Dewson G, Kluck RM. Bak apoptotic function is not directly regulated by phosphorylation. Cell Death Dis 2013; 4:e452. [PMID: 23303126 PMCID: PMC3563979 DOI: 10.1038/cddis.2012.191] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2012] [Accepted: 11/21/2012] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
During apoptosis, Bak and Bax permeabilize the mitochondrial outer membrane by undergoing major conformational change and oligomerization. This activation process in Bak is reported to require dephosphorylation of tyrosine-108 close to an activation trigger site. To investigate how dephosphorylation of Bak contributes to its activation and conformational change, one-dimensional isoelectric focusing (1D-IEF) and mutagenesis was used to monitor Bak phosphorylation. On 1D-IEF, Bak extracted from a range of cell types migrated as a single band near the predicted isoelectric point of 5.6 both before and after phosphatase treatment, indicating that Bak is not significantly phosphorylated at any residue. In contrast, three engineered 'phosphotagged' Bak variants showed a second band at lower pI, indicating phosphorylation. Apoptosis induced by several stimuli failed to alter Bak pI, indicating little change in phosphorylation status. In addition, alanine substitution of tyrosine-108 and other putative phosphorylation sites failed to enhance Bak activation or pro-apoptotic function. In summary, Bak is not significantly phosphorylated at any residue, and Bak activation during apoptosis does not require dephosphorylation.
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Affiliation(s)
- V H Tran
- Molecular Genetics of Cancer Division, The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - R Bartolo
- Molecular Genetics of Cancer Division, The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - D Westphal
- Molecular Genetics of Cancer Division, The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - A Alsop
- Molecular Genetics of Cancer Division, The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - G Dewson
- Molecular Genetics of Cancer Division, The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - R M Kluck
- Molecular Genetics of Cancer Division, The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
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Azad A, Fox J, Leverrier S, Storey A. Blockade of the BAK hydrophobic groove by inhibitory phosphorylation regulates commitment to apoptosis. PLoS One 2012. [PMID: 23189150 PMCID: PMC3506661 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0049601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The BCL-2 family protein BAK is a key regulator of mitochondrial apoptosis. BAK activation first involves N-terminal conformational changes that lead to the transient exposure of the BAK BH3 domain that then inserts into a hydrophobic groove on another BAK molecule to form symmetric dimers. We showed recently that post-translational modifications are important in the regulation of BAK conformational change and multimerization, with dephosphorylation at tyrosine 108 constituting an initial step in the BAK activation process. We now show that dephosphorylation of serine 117 (S117), located in the BAK hydrophobic groove, is also critical for BAK activation to proceed to completion. Phosphorylation of BAK at S117 has two important regulatory functions: first, it occludes the binding of BH3-containing peptides that bind to BAK causing activation and cytochrome c release from mitochondria; second, it prevents BAK-BH3:BAK-Groove interactions that nucleate dimer formation for subsequent multimerization. Hence, BH3-mediated BAK conformational change and subsequent BAK multimerization for cytochrome c release and cell death is intimately linked to, and dependent on, dephosphorylation at S117. Our study reveals important novel mechanistic and structural insights into the temporal sequence of events governing the process of BAK activation in commitment to cell death and how they are regulated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abul Azad
- Department of Oncology, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Joanna Fox
- Department of Oncology, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Sabrina Leverrier
- Department of Oncology, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Alan Storey
- Department of Oncology, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
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