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Lu X, Wang X, Cheng H, Wang X, Liu C, Tan X. Anti-triple-negative breast cancer metastasis efficacy and molecular mechanism of the STING agonist for innate immune pathway. Ann Med 2023; 55:2210845. [PMID: 37162544 PMCID: PMC10173802 DOI: 10.1080/07853890.2023.2210845] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/11/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND With high recurrence and metastatic rates, triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) has few therapy choices. The innate immune stimulator of interferon genes protein (STING) pathway has emerged as a critical foundation for improving anticancer immunotherapy. Although 2',3'-cGAMP has been shown to have therapeutic potential as a STING agonist in subcutaneous solid tumour treatments in mice, the effect of cGAMP in metastatic malignancies has received less attention. METHODS Bioluminescence imaging technology was applied to monitor TNBC tumour cell metastasis in living mice. Serum biochemical test and blood routine examination of mice were used to demonstrate cGAMP administration had no toxicity. The activation of DCs and CD8+ T cells was demonstrated by flow cytometry. The pharmacological mechanism of cGAMP for suppressing breast tumour metastasis was also explored. RESULTS cGAMP treatment substantially suppressed tumour development and metastasis without adverse effects. cGAMP activated the cGAS-STING-IRF3 pathway, which modified the tumour immune milieu to reverse the Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition (EMT) and PI3K/AKT pathways and prevent tumour metastasis. It was postulated and proven that cGAMP had a pharmacological mechanism for reducing breast tumour metastasis. CONCLUSION The findings suggest that cGAMP could be useful in the immunotherapy of immune-insensitive metastatic breast cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xing Lu
- Department of Chemistry & Institutes of Biomedical Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Xiang Wang
- Department of Chemistry & Institutes of Biomedical Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Hao Cheng
- Department of Chemistry & Institutes of Biomedical Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Xiaoqing Wang
- Department of Chemistry & Institutes of Biomedical Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Chang Liu
- Department of Chemistry & Institutes of Biomedical Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Xiangshi Tan
- Department of Chemistry & Institutes of Biomedical Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
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2
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Lu X, Cheng H, Xu Q, Tan X. Encapsulation of STING Agonist cGAMP with Folic Acid-Conjugated Liposomes Significantly Enhances Antitumor Pharmacodynamic Effect. Cancer Biother Radiopharm 2023; 38:543-557. [PMID: 33719535 DOI: 10.1089/cbr.2020.4085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: 2',3'-cGAMP (2',3'-cyclic AMP-GMP) has been reported as an agonist of the STING (stimulator of interferon genes) signaling pathway. However, cGAMP has poor membrane permeability and can be hydrolyzed by ectonucleotide pyrophosphatase/phosphodiesterase (ENPP1), limiting its ability to activate the STING-IRF3 pathway. This study aimed to investigate that the folate-targeted liposomal cGAMP could overcome the defects of free cGAMP to enhance the antitumor effect. Materials and Methods: cGAMP was encapsulated in PEGylated folic acid-targeted liposomes to construct a carrier-delivered formulation. The particle size and morphology were detected by dynamic light scattering and transmission electron microscopy. The sustained-release ability was measured by drug release and pharmacokinetics. Animal models were applied to evaluate the tumor inhibition efficiency in vivo. Flow cytometry, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, and real-time polymerase chain reaction were used to detect the expression of immune cells, secreted cytokines, and target genes. The activation of the STING-IRF3 pathway was evaluated by immunofluorescence. Results: Physical characters of liposomes revealed that the prepared liposomes were stable in neutral humoral environments and released more internal drugs in acidic tumor tissues. Systemic therapy with liposomes on Colorectal 26 tumor-bearing mice in vivo effectively inhibited tumor growth via stimulating the expression of CD8+ T cells and reversed the immunosuppressed tumor microenvironment (TME). Conclusions: The study suggests that the folic acid-targeted cGAMP-loaded liposomes deliver drugs to the TME to enhance the STING agonist activity, improving the efficiency of tumor therapy via the cGAMP-STING-IRF3 pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xing Lu
- Department of Chemistry, Institutes of Biomedical Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Hao Cheng
- Department of Chemistry, Institutes of Biomedical Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Qiming Xu
- Department of Chemistry, Institutes of Biomedical Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Xiangshi Tan
- Department of Chemistry, Institutes of Biomedical Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
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3
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Buhrmann C, Kunnumakkara AB, Kumar A, Samec M, Kubatka P, Aggarwal BB, Shakibaei M. Multitargeting Effects of Calebin A on Malignancy of CRC Cells in Multicellular Tumor Microenvironment. Front Oncol 2021; 11:650603. [PMID: 34660256 PMCID: PMC8511772 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2021.650603] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2021] [Accepted: 09/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Tumor microenvironment (TME) provides the essential prerequisite niche for promoting cancer progression and metastasis. Calebin A, a component of Curcuma longa, has long been investigated as a safe multitargeted agent with antitumor and anti-inflammatory properties. However, the multicellular-TME-induced malignancy and the antitumorigenic potential of Calebin A on colorectal cancer (CRC) cells in 3D-alginate cultures are not yet understood, and more in-depth research is needed. Methods 3D-alginate tumor cultures (HCT116 cells) in the multicellular proinflammatory TME (fibroblast cells/T lymphocytes), tumor necrosis factor beta (TNF-β)-TME (fibroblast cells/TNF-β) were treated with/without Calebin A to address the pleiotropic actions of Calebin A in the CRC. Results We found that Calebin A downmodulated proliferation, vitality, and migration of HCT116 cells in 3D-alginate cultures in multicellular proinflammatory TME or TNF-β-TME. In addition, Calebin A suppressed TNF-β-, similar to multicellular-TME-induced phosphorylation of nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) in a concentration-dependent manner. NF-κB-promoting proinflammatory mediators, associated with tumor growth and antiapoptotic molecules (i.e.,MMP-9, CXCR4, Ki-67, β1-integrin, and Caspase-3) and its translocation to the nucleus in HCT116 cells, were increased in both TME cultures. The multicellular-TME cultures further induced the survival of cancer stem cells (CSCs) (upregulation of CD133, CD44, and ALDH1). Last but not the least, Calebin A suppressed multicellular-, similar to TNF-β-TME-induced rigorous upregulation of NF-κB phosphorylation, various NF-κB-regulated gene products, CSCs activation, and survival in 3D-alginate tumor cultures. Conclusions The downmodulation of multicellular proinflammatory-, similar to TNF-β-TME-induced CRC proliferation, survival, and migration by the multitargeting agent Calebin A could be a new therapeutic strategy to suppress inflammation and CRC tumorigenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Constanze Buhrmann
- Musculoskeletal Research Group and Tumor Biology, Chair of Vegetative Anatomy, Institute of Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine, Ludwig-Maximilian-University Munich, Munich, Germany.,Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Augsburg, Augsburg, Germany
| | - Ajaikumar B Kunnumakkara
- Cancer Biology Laboratory & Department of Biotechnology-National institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (DBT-AIST) International Center for Translational and Environmental Research (DAICENTER), Department of Biosciences & Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Assam, India
| | - Aviral Kumar
- Cancer Biology Laboratory & Department of Biotechnology-National institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (DBT-AIST) International Center for Translational and Environmental Research (DAICENTER), Department of Biosciences & Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Assam, India
| | - Marek Samec
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Jessenius Faculty of Medicine, Comenius University in Bratislava, Martin, Slovakia
| | - Peter Kubatka
- Department of Medical Biology, Jessenius Faculty of Medicine, Comenius University in Bratislava, Martin, Slovakia
| | | | - Mehdi Shakibaei
- Musculoskeletal Research Group and Tumor Biology, Chair of Vegetative Anatomy, Institute of Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine, Ludwig-Maximilian-University Munich, Munich, Germany
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4
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Tyciakova S, Valova V, Svitkova B, Matuskova M. Overexpression of TNFα induces senescence, autophagy and mitochondrial dysfunctions in melanoma cells. BMC Cancer 2021; 21:507. [PMID: 33957885 PMCID: PMC8101174 DOI: 10.1186/s12885-021-08237-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2020] [Accepted: 04/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα) is a pleiotropic cytokine with both anti-tumorigenic and pro-tumorigenic activity, affecting tumor cell biology, the balance between cell survival and death. The final effect of TNFα is dependent on the type of malignant cells, with the potential to arrest cancer progression. Methods In order to explain the diverse cellular response to TNFα, we engineered melanoma and colorectal carcinoma cell lines stably overexpressing this cytokine. Results Under the TNFα overexpression, significant upregulation of two genes was observed: proinflammatory cytokine IL6 gene in melanoma cells A375 and gene for pro-apoptotic ligand TRAIL in colorectal carcinoma cells HT29, both mediated by TNFα/TNFR1 signaling. Malignant melanoma line A375 displayed also increased autophagy on day 3, followed by premature senescence on day 6. Both processes seem to be interconnected, following earlier apoptosis induction and deregulation of mitochondrial functions. We documented altered mitochondrial status, lowered ATP production, lowered mitochondrial mass, and changes in mitochondrial morphology (shortened and condensed mitochondria) both in melanoma and colorectal carcinoma cells. Overexpression of TNFα was not linked with significant affection of the subpopulation of cancer stem-like cells in vitro. However, we could demonstrate a decrease in aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH) activity up to 50%, which is associated with to the stemness phenotype. Conclusions Our in vitro study of direct TNFα influence demonstrates two distinct outcomes in tumor cells of different origin, in non-epithelial malignant melanoma cells of neural crest origin, and in colorectal carcinoma cells derived from the epithelium. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12885-021-08237-1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvia Tyciakova
- Cancer Research Institute, Biomedical Research Center of Slovak Academy of Sciences, Dubravska cesta 9, 845 05, Bratislava, Slovakia.
| | - Valeria Valova
- Cancer Research Institute, Biomedical Research Center of Slovak Academy of Sciences, Dubravska cesta 9, 845 05, Bratislava, Slovakia.,Department of Genetics, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Comenius University, Mlynská dolina, Ilkovicova 6, 842 15, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Barbora Svitkova
- Cancer Research Institute, Biomedical Research Center of Slovak Academy of Sciences, Dubravska cesta 9, 845 05, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Miroslava Matuskova
- Cancer Research Institute, Biomedical Research Center of Slovak Academy of Sciences, Dubravska cesta 9, 845 05, Bratislava, Slovakia
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5
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Yushan R, Ying Y, Yujun T, Jingchun Y, Dongguang L, Lihong P, Pingping W, Lili Z, Fanhui Z, Zhong L, Guimin Z, Jie L. Isoliquiritigenin inhibits mouse S180 tumors with a new mechanism that regulates autophagy by GSK-3β/TNF-α pathway. Eur J Pharmacol 2018; 838:11-22. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2018.08.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2018] [Revised: 08/21/2018] [Accepted: 08/24/2018] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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6
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Oncodriver inhibition and CD4 + Th1 cytokines cooperate through Stat1 activation to induce tumor senescence and apoptosis in HER2+ and triple negative breast cancer: implications for combining immune and targeted therapies. Oncotarget 2018; 9:23058-23077. [PMID: 29796172 PMCID: PMC5955413 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.25208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2016] [Accepted: 04/02/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
In patients with HER2-expressing breast cancer many develop resistance to HER2 targeted therapies. We show that high and intermediate HER2-expressing cancer cell lines are driven toward apoptosis and tumor senescence when treated with either CD4+ Th1 cells, or Th1 cytokines TNF-α and IFN-γ, in a dose dependent manner. Depletion of HER2 activity by either siRNA or trastuzumab and pertuzumab, and subsequent treatment with either anti-HER2 Th1 cells or TNF-α and IFN-γ resulted in synergistic increased tumor senescence and apoptosis in cells both sensitive and cells resistant to trastuzumab which was inhibited by neutralizing anti-TNF-α and IFN-γ. Th1 cytokines induced minimal senescence or apoptosis in triple negative breast cancer cells (TNBC); however, inhibition of EGFR in combination with Th1 cytokines sensitized those cells causing both senescence and apoptosis. TNF-α and IFN-γ led to increased Stat1 phosphorylation through serine and tyrosine sites and a compensatory reduction in Stat3 activation. Single agent IFN-γ enhanced Stat1 phosphorylation on tyrosine 701 and similar effects were observed in combination with TNF-α and EGFR inhibition. These results demonstrate Th1 cytokines and anti-oncodriver blockade cooperate in causing tumor senescence and apoptosis in TNBC and HER2-expressing breast cancer, suggesting these combinations could be explored as non-cross-reactive therapy preventing recurrence in breast cancer.
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7
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Ann P, Seagle BLL, Shilpi A, Kandpal M, Shahabi S. Association of increased primary breast tumor AGR2 with decreased disease-specific survival. Oncotarget 2018; 9:23114-23125. [PMID: 29796176 PMCID: PMC5955412 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.25225] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2017] [Accepted: 04/04/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective Tumor expression of Anterior Gradient 2 (AGR2), an endoplasmic reticulum protein disulfide isomerase, was associated with decreased breast cancer survival. We aimed to validate the association of tumor AGR2 mRNA expression with disease-specific survival (DSS) and identify differentially expressed signaling pathways between high and low AGR2 expression tumor groups. Methods Primary tumor mRNA expression data from the METABRIC study was used to evaluate AGR2 expression as a prognostic factor for DSS while adjusting for survival-determining confounders using Cox proportional-hazards regression. Differentially expressed genes and signaling pathway differences between high and low AGR2 groups were determined by modular enrichment analyses using DAVID and Ingenuity Pathway Analysis. Results Increased tumor AGR2 mRNA expression was associated with decreased DSS among 1,341 women (per each standard deviation increase of AGR2 expression: HR 1.14, 95% CI: 1.01-1.29, P = 0.03). Pathway analyses supported prior experimental studies showing that estrogen receptor 1 (ESR1) regulated AGR2 expression. Canonical signaling pathways significantly differentially represented between high and low AGR2 groups included those involved in inflammation and immunity. Conclusion Increased primary tumor AGR2 expression was associated with decreased DSS. Pathway analyses suggested that increased AGR2 was associated with endoplasmic reticular homeostasis, possibly allowing tumor cells to overcome hypoxic stress and meet the increased protein demand of tumorigenesis, thereby preventing unfolded protein response-mediated apoptosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Phoebe Ann
- Division of Gynecologic Oncology, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, 60611 Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Brandon-Luke L Seagle
- Division of Gynecologic Oncology, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, 60611 Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Arunima Shilpi
- Division of Gynecologic Oncology, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, 60611 Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Manoj Kandpal
- Division of Gynecologic Oncology, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, 60611 Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Shohreh Shahabi
- Division of Gynecologic Oncology, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, 60611 Chicago, IL, USA
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8
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Long Y, Tsai WB, Wang D, Hawke DH, Savaraj N, Feun LG, Hung MC, Chen HHW, Kuo MT. Argininosuccinate synthetase 1 (ASS1) is a common metabolic marker of chemosensitivity for targeted arginine- and glutamine-starvation therapy. Cancer Lett 2016; 388:54-63. [PMID: 27913198 DOI: 10.1016/j.canlet.2016.11.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2016] [Revised: 11/22/2016] [Accepted: 11/23/2016] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Argininosuccinate synthetase 1 (ASS1) is the rate-limiting enzyme that catalyzes the biosynthesis of arginine (Arg). Many malignant human tumors are auxotrophic for Arg because ASS1 is silenced. ASS1 has been established as a sensor of Arg auxotrophic response and a chemosensitivity marker for Arg starvation therapy. Here, we report that ASS1 is also a sensor for glutamine (Gln)-deprivation response, and that upregulation of ASS1 expression is associated with resistance to Gln-starvation treatments. Knockdown of ASS1 expression resulted in increased sensitivity to both Arg- and Gln-starvation, whereas increased ASS1 expression by ectopic transfection is associated with resistance to both Arg- and Gln-starvation. The addition of permeable fumarate, a metabolite that bridges the tricarboxylic acid and urea cycles, resulted in downregulation of ASS1 expression and increased sensitivity to both Arg- and Gln-deprivation treatments. Mechanistically, the Gln-deprivation response, like the arginine-auxotrophic response, downregulates HIF-1α resulting in de-silencing of ASS1. Our results demonstrate that ASS1 is a common biosensor for Arg and Gln deprivation response and a shared target for Arg- and Gln-starvation therapies which have been in several current clinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Long
- Department of Translational Molecular Pathology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Wen-Bin Tsai
- Department of Translational Molecular Pathology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Dajuan Wang
- Department of Translational Molecular Pathology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA; Department of Pathophysiology, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510080, PR China
| | - David H Hawke
- Department of Systems Biology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Niramol Savaraj
- Sylvester Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA
| | - Lynn G Feun
- Sylvester Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA
| | - Mien-Chie Hung
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Oncology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Helen H W Chen
- National Cheng Kung University, National Cheng Kung University Hospital, College of Medicine, Department of Radiation Oncology, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Macus Tien Kuo
- Department of Translational Molecular Pathology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA.
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9
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Nowakowski A, Drela K, Rozycka J, Janowski M, Lukomska B. Engineered Mesenchymal Stem Cells as an Anti-Cancer Trojan Horse. Stem Cells Dev 2016; 25:1513-1531. [PMID: 27460260 DOI: 10.1089/scd.2016.0120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Cell-based gene therapy holds a great promise for the treatment of human malignancy. Among different cells, mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are emerging as valuable anti-cancer agents that have the potential to be used to treat a number of different cancer types. They have inherent migratory properties, which allow them to serve as vehicles for delivering effective therapy to isolated tumors and metastases. MSCs have been engineered to express anti-proliferative, pro-apoptotic, and anti-angiogenic agents that specifically target different cancers. Another field of interest is to modify MSCs with the cytokines that activate pro-tumorigenic immunity or to use them as carriers for the traditional chemical compounds that possess the properties of anti-cancer drugs. Although there is still controversy about the exact function of MSCs in the tumor settings, the encouraging results from the preclinical studies of MSC-based gene therapy for a large number of tumors support the initiation of clinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam Nowakowski
- 1 NeuroRepair Department, Mossakowski Medical Research Centre , Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Katarzyna Drela
- 1 NeuroRepair Department, Mossakowski Medical Research Centre , Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Justyna Rozycka
- 1 NeuroRepair Department, Mossakowski Medical Research Centre , Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Miroslaw Janowski
- 1 NeuroRepair Department, Mossakowski Medical Research Centre , Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland .,2 Division of MR Research, Russel H. Morgan Department of Radiology and Radiological Science, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine , Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Barbara Lukomska
- 1 NeuroRepair Department, Mossakowski Medical Research Centre , Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
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10
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Frazier TP, Bowles A, Lee S, Abbott R, Tucker HA, Kaplan D, Wang M, Strong A, Brown Q, He J, Bunnell BA, Gimble JM. Serially Transplanted Nonpericytic CD146(-) Adipose Stromal/Stem Cells in Silk Bioscaffolds Regenerate Adipose Tissue In Vivo. Stem Cells 2016; 34:1097-111. [PMID: 26865460 DOI: 10.1002/stem.2325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2015] [Accepted: 10/29/2015] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Progenitors derived from the stromal vascular fraction (SVF) of white adipose tissue (WAT) possess the ability to form clonal populations and differentiate along multiple lineage pathways. However, the literature continues to vacillate between defining adipocyte progenitors as "stromal" or "stem" cells. Recent studies have demonstrated that a nonpericytic subpopulation of adipose stromal cells, which possess the phenotype, CD45(-) /CD31(-) /CD146(-) /CD34(+) , are mesenchymal, and suggest this may be an endogenous progenitor subpopulation within adipose tissue. We hypothesized that an adipose progenitor could be sorted based on the expression of CD146, CD34, and/or CD29 and when implanted in vivo these cells can persist, proliferate, and regenerate a functional fat pad over serial transplants. SVF cells and culture expanded adipose stromal/stem cells (ASC) ubiquitously expressing the green fluorescent protein transgene (GFP-Tg) were fractionated by flow cytometry. Both freshly isolated SVF and culture expanded ASC were seeded in three-dimensional silk scaffolds, implanted subcutaneously in wild-type hosts, and serially transplanted. Six-week WAT constructs were removed and evaluated for the presence of GFP-Tg adipocytes and stem cells. Flow cytometry, quantitative polymerase chain reaction, and confocal microscopy demonstrated GFP-Tg cell persistence, proliferation, and expansion, respectively. Glycerol secretion and glucose uptake assays revealed GFP-Tg adipose was metabolically functional. Constructs seeded with GFP-Tg SVF cells or GFP-Tg ASC exhibited higher SVF yields from digested tissue, and higher construct weights, compared to nonseeded controls. Constructs derived from CD146(-) CD34(+) -enriched GFP-Tg ASC populations exhibited higher hemoglobin saturation, and higher frequency of GFP-Tg cells than unsorted or CD29(+) GFP-Tg ASC counterparts. These data demonstrated successful serial transplantation of nonpericytic adipose-derived progenitors that can reconstitute adipose tissue as a solid organ. These findings have the potential to provide new insights regarding the stem cell identity of adipose progenitor cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Trivia P Frazier
- Center for Stem Cell Research and Regenerative Medicine, Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA
| | - Annie Bowles
- Center for Stem Cell Research and Regenerative Medicine, Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA
| | - Stephen Lee
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Tulane University, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA
| | - Rosalyn Abbott
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Tufts University, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA.,Department of Chemical Engineering, Tufts University, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA
| | - Hugh A Tucker
- Center for Stem Cell Research and Regenerative Medicine, Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA
| | - David Kaplan
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Tufts University, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA.,Department of Chemical Engineering, Tufts University, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA
| | - Mei Wang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Tulane University, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA
| | - Amy Strong
- Center for Stem Cell Research and Regenerative Medicine, Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA
| | - Quincy Brown
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Tulane University, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA
| | - Jibao He
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Tulane University, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA
| | - Bruce A Bunnell
- Center for Stem Cell Research and Regenerative Medicine, Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA.,Department of Pharmacology, Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA
| | - Jeffrey M Gimble
- Department of Medicine, Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA.,Department of Structural and Cellular Biology, Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA.,Department of Surgery, Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA.,Department of Biomedical Engineering, Tulane University, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA.,LaCell, LLC., New Orleans Bio-innovation Center, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA
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11
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Inhibition of colon cancer growth by docosahexaenoic acid involves autocrine production of TNFα. Oncogene 2016; 35:4611-22. [PMID: 26853468 DOI: 10.1038/onc.2015.523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2015] [Revised: 12/02/2015] [Accepted: 12/11/2015] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) has anti-inflammatory and anti-cancer properties. Among pro-inflammatory mediators, tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα) plays a paradoxical role in cancer biology with induction of cancer cell death or survival depending on the cellular context. The objective of the study was to evaluate the role of TNFα in DHA-mediated tumor growth inhibition and colon cancer cell death. The treatment of human colorectal cancer cells, HCT-116 and HCT-8 cells, with DHA triggered apoptosis in autocrine TNFα-dependent manner. We demonstrated that DHA-induced increased content of TNFα mRNA occurred through a post-transcriptional regulation via the down-regulation of microRNA-21 (miR-21) expression. Treatment with DHA led to nuclear accumulation of Foxo3a that bounds to the miR-21 promoter triggering its transcriptional repression. Moreover, inhibition of RIP1 kinase and AMP-activated protein kinase α reduced Foxo3a nuclear-cytoplasmic shuttling and subsequent increase of TNFα expression through a decrease of miR-21 expression in DHA-treated colon cancer cells. Finally, we were able to show in HCT-116 xenograft tumor-bearing nude mice that a DHA-enriched diet induced a decrease of human miR-21 expression and an increase of human TNFα mRNA expression limiting tumor growth in a cancer cell-derived TNFα dependent manner. Altogether, the present work highlights a novel mechanism for anti-cancer action of DHA involving colon cancer cell death mediated through autocrine action of TNFα.
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Abstract
Metabolic processes are altered in cancer cells, which obtain advantages from this metabolic reprogramming in terms of energy production and synthesis of biomolecules that sustain their uncontrolled proliferation. Due to the conceptual progresses in the last decade, metabolic reprogramming was recently included as one of the new hallmarks of cancer. The advent of high-throughput technologies to amass an abundance of omic data, together with the development of new computational methods that allow the integration and analysis of omic data by using genome-scale reconstructions of human metabolism, have increased and accelerated the discovery and development of anticancer drugs and tumor-specific metabolic biomarkers. Here we review and discuss the latest advances in the context of metabolic reprogramming and the future in cancer research.
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13
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Sarosiek K, Jones E, Chipitsyna G, Al-Zoubi M, Kang C, Saxena S, Gandhi AV, Sendiky J, Yeo CJ, Arafat HA. Osteopontin (OPN) isoforms, diabetes, obesity, and cancer; what is one got to do with the other? A new role for OPN. J Gastrointest Surg 2015; 19:639-50. [PMID: 25583441 DOI: 10.1007/s11605-014-2735-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2013] [Accepted: 12/15/2014] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Alternative splicing of osteopontin (OPN) produces three isoforms: OPNa, OPNb, and OPNc. The aims of this study were to examine the expression profile of OPN isoforms in sera from patients with pancreatic lesions and to determine their correlation with the presence of comorbid systemic inflammatory conditions, such as diabetes and/or obesity. Sera from 90 patients undergoing pancreatic surgery and 29 healthy volunteers were analyzed. Seventeen patients were diabetics, 17 were obese, and 6 had both diabetes and obesity. In patients with pancreatic lesions, OPNb was expressed in 48% of the patients' sera, OPNc in 34%, and both in 5%. The presence of diabetes and/or obesity was associated with complete disappearance of OPNb and expression of only OPNc. OPNc presence was significantly associated with diabetes and obesity (OR = 7.06 [95% CI 1.97-23.3]; p = 0.003). No OPNb or OPNc was detected in the normal sera. Overexpression of OPNb and OPNc isoforms in PDA cells significantly (p < 0.05) increased their activity in soft-agar colony formation and wound healing assays, induced the transcription of interleukin (IL)-6, and reduced tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), interferon gamma (IFN-γ), and IL-10. Our data show for the first time the significant association between serum OPNc and diabetes and/or obesity. Unraveling the functional role of OPN isoforms in systemic inflammation is essential to understanding their significance as therapeutic targets in diabetes and obesity, and during metastasis development in PDA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Konrad Sarosiek
- Department of Surgery, Jefferson Pancreatic, Biliary and Related Cancer Center, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA, 19107, USA
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14
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Tyciakova S, Matuskova M, Bohovic R, Polakova K, Toro L, Skolekova S, Kucerova L. Genetically engineered mesenchymal stromal cells producing TNFα have tumour suppressing effect on human melanoma xenograft. J Gene Med 2015; 17:54-67. [DOI: 10.1002/jgm.2823] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2014] [Revised: 12/19/2014] [Accepted: 02/05/2015] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Silvia Tyciakova
- Laboratory of Molecular Oncology; Cancer Research Institute of Slovak Academy of Sciences; Bratislava Slovakia
| | - Miroslava Matuskova
- Laboratory of Molecular Oncology; Cancer Research Institute of Slovak Academy of Sciences; Bratislava Slovakia
| | - Roman Bohovic
- Laboratory of Molecular Oncology; Cancer Research Institute of Slovak Academy of Sciences; Bratislava Slovakia
| | - Katarina Polakova
- Laboratory of Tumour Immunology; Cancer Research Institute of Slovak Academy of Sciences; Bratislava Slovakia
| | - Lenka Toro
- Laboratory of Molecular Oncology; Cancer Research Institute of Slovak Academy of Sciences; Bratislava Slovakia
| | - Svetlana Skolekova
- Laboratory of Molecular Oncology; Cancer Research Institute of Slovak Academy of Sciences; Bratislava Slovakia
| | - Lucia Kucerova
- Laboratory of Molecular Oncology; Cancer Research Institute of Slovak Academy of Sciences; Bratislava Slovakia
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15
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Clarke RB, Stingl J, Vivanco M, Bentires-Alj M. ‘The charmingest place’: non-coding RNA, lineage tracing, tumor heterogeneity, metastasis and metabolism--new methods in mammary gland development and cancer: the fifth ENBDC Workshop. Breast Cancer Res 2014; 15:313. [PMID: 24103450 PMCID: PMC3979154 DOI: 10.1186/bcr3497] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
The European Network for Breast Development and Cancer (ENBDC) Workshop on ‘Methods in Mammary Gland Development and Cancer’ has grown into the essential, international technical discussion forum for scientists with interests in the normal and neoplastic breast. The fifth ENBDC meeting was held in Weggis, Switzerland in April, 2013, and focussed on emerging, state-of-the-art techniques for the study of non-coding RNA, lineage tracing, tumor heterogeneity, metastasis and metabolism.
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16
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Martinez-Outschoorn U, Sotgia F, Lisanti MP. Tumor microenvironment and metabolic synergy in breast cancers: critical importance of mitochondrial fuels and function. Semin Oncol 2014; 41:195-216. [PMID: 24787293 DOI: 10.1053/j.seminoncol.2014.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 144] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Metabolic synergy or metabolic coupling between glycolytic stromal cells (Warburg effect) and oxidative cancer cells occurs in human breast cancers and promotes tumor growth. The Warburg effect or aerobic glycolysis is the catabolism of glucose to lactate to obtain adenosine triphosphate (ATP). This review summarizes the main findings on this stromal metabolic phenotype, and the associated signaling pathways, as well as the critical role of oxidative stress and autophagy, all of which promote carcinoma cell mitochondrial metabolism and tumor growth. Loss of Caveolin 1 (Cav-1) and the upregulation of monocarboxylate transporter 4 (MCT4) in stromal cells are novel markers of the Warburg effect and metabolic synergy between stromal and carcinoma cells. MCT4 and Cav-1 are also breast cancer prognostic biomarkers. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are key mediators of the stromal Warburg effect. High ROS also favors cancer cell mitochondrial metabolism and tumorigenesis, and anti-oxidants can reverse this altered stromal and carcinoma metabolism. A pseudo-hypoxic state with glycolysis and low mitochondrial metabolism in the absence of hypoxia is a common feature in breast cancer. High ROS induces loss of Cav-1 in stromal cells and is sufficient to generate a pseudo-hypoxic state. Loss of Cav-1 in the stroma drives glycolysis and lactate extrusion via HIF-1α stabilization and the upregulation of MCT4. Stromal cells with loss of Cav-1 and/or high expression of MCT4 also show a catabolic phenotype, with enhanced macroautophagy. This catabolic state in stromal cells is driven by hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF)-1α, nuclear factor κB (NFκB), and JNK activation and high ROS generation. A feed-forward loop in stromal cells regulates pseudo-hypoxia and metabolic synergy, with Cav-1, MCT4, HIF-1α, NFκB, and ROS as its key elements. Metabolic synergy also may occur between cancer cells and cells in distant organs from the tumor. Cancer cachexia, which is due to severe organismal metabolic dysregulation in myocytes and adipocytes, shares similarities with stromal-carcinoma metabolic synergy, as well. In summary, metabolic synergy occurs when breast carcinoma cells induce a nutrient-rich microenvironment to promote tumor growth. The process of tumor metabolic synergy is a multistep process, due to the generation of ROS, and the induction of catabolism with autophagy, mitophagy and glycolysis. Studying epithelial-stromal interactions and metabolic synergy is important to better understand the ecology of cancer and the metabolic role of different cell types in tumor progression.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Federica Sotgia
- University of Manchester, Manchester Breast Centre & Breakthrough Breast Cancer Research Unit, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Michael P Lisanti
- University of Manchester, Manchester Breast Centre & Breakthrough Breast Cancer Research Unit, Manchester, United Kingdom
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17
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Sun Z, Wang S, Zhao RC. The roles of mesenchymal stem cells in tumor inflammatory microenvironment. J Hematol Oncol 2014; 7:14. [PMID: 24502410 PMCID: PMC3943443 DOI: 10.1186/1756-8722-7-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 181] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2013] [Accepted: 12/31/2013] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Tumor behavior is not entirely determined by tumor cells. Studies have demonstrated that a variety of non-tumor cells in the tumor microenvironment affect tumor behavior; thus, a new focus of cancer research has been the development of novel cancer treatment ideas and therapeutic targets based on the effects of these cells. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are an important component of the tumor microenvironment; however, previous studies have produced controversial results regarding whether MSCs promote or inhibit tumor growth and progression. In particular, Naïve MSCs and tumor-derived MSCs (T-MSCs) have different functions. Naïve MSCs could exert bidirectional effects on tumors because these cells can both promote and inhibit tumor progression while T-MSCs promote tumor progression due to influences from the tumor itself and from the inflammatory tumor microenvironment. As an unhealed wound, tumor produces a continuous source of inflammatory mediators and causes aggregation of numerous inflammatory cells, which constitute an inflammatory microenvironment. Inflammatory factors can induce homing of circulating MSCs and MSCs in adjacent tissues into tumors, which are then being “educated” by the tumor microenvironment to support tumor growth. T-MSCs could recruit more immune cells into the tumor microenvironment, increase the proportion of cancer stem cells and promote tumor angiogenesis, further supporting tumor progression. However, as plasticity is a fundamental feature of MSCs, MSCs can also inhibit tumors by activating various MSC-based signaling pathways. Studies of the mechanisms by which interactions among tumors, MSCs, and the inflammatory microenvironment occur and methods to disrupt these interactions will likely reveal new targets for cancer therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Robert Chunhua Zhao
- Center of Excellence in Tissue Engineering, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences and School of Basic Medicine, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, People's Republic of China.
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18
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Overexpressing TNF-alpha in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma cells and fibroblasts modifies cell survival and reduces fatty acid synthesis via downregulation of sterol regulatory element binding protein-1 and activation of acetyl CoA carboxylase. J Gastrointest Surg 2014; 18:257-68; discussion 268. [PMID: 24091913 DOI: 10.1007/s11605-013-2370-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2013] [Accepted: 09/20/2013] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
The effect of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) gene delivery has been suggested as a potentially useful therapeutic approach to improve the chemotherapeutic treatment of patients with pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDA), but the exact mechanism of its action is not clearly understood. In this study, we analyzed the expression profile of TNF-α in PDA tissue and explored its potential role in fatty acid synthase (FAS) regulation in PDA cells and in fibroblasts. Quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction was used to examine the expression of TNF-α in PDA, matching adjacent tissues, and benign lesions. Logistic regression models with robust variance were used to analyze the gene expression levels, and Kaplan-Meier survival curves were generated. In vitro, we overexpressed the TNF-α gene in PDA cells and fibroblasts and analyzed its effect on cell survival, migration, and on members of the FAS signaling pathway. We also evaluated TNF-α effects on a panel of inflammation-, angiogenesis-, and metastasis-related markers. In the tumor tissue of PDA patients, compared with their matched adjacent tissue, expression levels of TNF-α were not statistically different and did not correlate with survival or any other examined clinicopathological features. Overexpression of TNF-α significantly (p < 0.05) reduced PDA and fibroblast cell migration. In PDA cells that highly overexpress TNF-α, this was associated with a significant reduction of FAS mRNA and protein expression levels and significant (p < 0.05) reduction of SREBP-1 and ACC mRNA. Reduction of FAS by TNF-α was inhibited when either SREBP-1 or ACC was knocked down by siRNA. PDA cells and fibroblasts that overexpress TNF-α displayed differential regulation of several inflammation-related markers and reduced levels of metastasis-related genes. Our data demonstrate a previously unknown multi-targeted involvement of TNF-α in PDA lipogenesis and inflammation and metastasis and suggest that intratumoral introduction of TNF-α may have the potential as a novel therapeutic approach in human PDA.
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Antiviral signaling protein MITA acts as a tumor suppressor in breast cancer by regulating NF-κB induced cell death. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis 2014; 1842:144-53. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbadis.2013.11.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2013] [Revised: 10/26/2013] [Accepted: 11/07/2013] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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Martinez-Outschoorn UE, Lisanti MP, Sotgia F. Catabolic cancer-associated fibroblasts transfer energy and biomass to anabolic cancer cells, fueling tumor growth. Semin Cancer Biol 2014; 25:47-60. [PMID: 24486645 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcancer.2014.01.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 306] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2013] [Revised: 01/17/2014] [Accepted: 01/17/2014] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Fibroblasts are the most abundant "non-cancerous" cells in tumors. However, it remains largely unknown how these cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) promote tumor growth and metastasis, driving chemotherapy resistance and poor clinical outcome. This review summarizes new findings on CAF signaling pathways and their emerging metabolic phenotypes that promote tumor growth. Although it is well established that altered cancer metabolism enhances tumor growth, little is known about the role of fibroblast metabolism in tumor growth. New studies reveal that metabolic coupling occurs between catabolic fibroblasts and anabolic cancer cells, in many types of human tumors, including breast, prostate, and head & neck cancers, as well as lymphomas. These catabolic phenotypes observed in CAFs are secondary to a ROS-induced metabolic stress response. Mechanistically, this occurs via HIF1-alpha and NFκB signaling, driving oxidative stress, autophagy, glycolysis and senescence in stromal fibroblasts. These catabolic CAFs then create a nutrient-rich microenvironment, to metabolically support tumor growth, via the local stromal generation of mitochondrial fuels (lactate, ketone bodies, fatty acids, glutamine, and other amino acids). New biomarkers of this catabolic CAF phenotype (such as caveolin-1 (Cav-1) and MCT4), which are reversible upon treatment with anti-oxidants, are strong predictors of poor clinical outcome in various types of human cancers. How cancer cells metabolically reprogram fibroblasts can also help us to understand the effects of cancer cells at an organismal level, explaining para-neoplastic phenomena, such as cancer cachexia. In conclusion, cancer should be viewed more as a systemic disease, that engages the host-organism in various forms of energy-transfer and metabolic co-operation, across a whole-body "ecosystem".
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Michael P Lisanti
- Manchester Breast Centre & Breakthrough Breast Cancer Research Unit, Institute of Cancer Sciences, University of Manchester, UK; Manchester Centre for Cellular Metabolism (MCCM), University of Manchester, UK.
| | - Federica Sotgia
- Manchester Breast Centre & Breakthrough Breast Cancer Research Unit, Institute of Cancer Sciences, University of Manchester, UK; Manchester Centre for Cellular Metabolism (MCCM), University of Manchester, UK.
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21
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Madar S, Goldstein I, Rotter V. 'Cancer associated fibroblasts'--more than meets the eye. Trends Mol Med 2013; 19:447-53. [PMID: 23769623 DOI: 10.1016/j.molmed.2013.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 261] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2013] [Revised: 05/14/2013] [Accepted: 05/16/2013] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Cancer associated fibroblasts (CAFs) are a subpopulation of cells that reside within the tumor microenvironment and promotes the transformation process by encouraging tumor growth, angiogenesis, inflammation, and metastasis. CAF-specific proteins serve as both prognostic markers and targets for anticancer drugs. With the growing interest in CAFs, several controversial issues have been raised, including the genomic landscape of these cells, the identity of specific markers, and their cell of origin. Here, we tackle these debated issues and put forward a new definition for 'CAF' as a cell 'state' rather than a cell type. We hope this conceptualization can resolve the ongoing discrepancies revolving around CAF research and aid in designing better anti-cancer treatment strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shalom Madar
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, 76100, Israel.
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