Nitric oxide increases the enzymatic activity of three ascorbate peroxidase isoforms in soybean root nodules

Overexpression of E. coli formaldehyde metabolic genes pleiotropically promotes Arabidopsis thaliana growth by regulating redox homeostasis

Formaldehyde (FA) is a hazardous pollutant causing acute and chronic poisoning in humans. While plants provide a natural method of removing FA pollution, their ability to absorb and degrade FA is limited. To improve the ability of plants to degrade FA, we introduced the E. coli FrmA gene into Arabidopsis thaliana alone (FrmAOE lines) or with FrmB (FrmA/BOE lines). The transgenic seedlings had approximately 30 % longer primary roots and a 20 % higher fresh weight than the control plants. The transgenic plants started flowering four days earlier and had about 30 % more kilo-seed weight than the wild type. FrmA/BOE and FrmAOE accumulated 40 % more reactive oxidative species (ROS) in mesophyll protoplasts and leaf tissue than wild-type plants under normal conditions. In the presence of FA, they produced 92 % and 26 % more glutathione (GSH) and 6 % and 4 % more ascorbate (AsA), respectively, compared to wild-type plants and thus scavenged FA-induced ROS more effectively. The degradation efficiency of the transgenic leaf extract for FA was 73 % and 44 % higher than that of the wild type, respectively, which was also emphasized by a 2 %-26 % increase in the activity of antioxidant enzymes such as SOD and APx. By revealing the functional divergence between microbial and plant FA metabolic pathways, our work has not only highlighted the promising pluripotency of microbial genes in promoting normal plant growth and detoxifying organic pollutants simultaneously, but also revealed another layer of complexity of plant defense mechanisms against organic toxins related to ROS scavenging.

Exploring Paenibacillus terrae B6a as a sustainable biocontrol agent for Fusarium proliferatum

The reliance on chemical fungicides for crop protection has raised environmental and health concerns, prompting the need for sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Biological control, using antagonistic microorganisms like Paenibacillus terrae B6a, offers an eco-friendly approach to managing disease causing phytopathogens. The objective of the study was to assess the efficacy of P. terrae B6a as a biocontrol agent against Fusarium proliferatum PPRI 31301, focusing on its in vitro antagonistic activity, its impact on fungal morphology and enzymatic content, and its ability to mitigate pathogen-induced stress in maize plants. In vitro antagonistic activity of B6a against F. proliferatum was carried out using standard protocol. In planta assay was carried out by bio-priming of maize seeds with 1 × 106 CFU/mL of B6a and infected with F. proliferatum for 7 days. Biochemical, enzymatic and antioxidants activities of bio-primed maize roots under F. proliferatum infection was carried out using spectrophotometric methods. In vitro antagonistic assays using dual culture and intracellular crude metabolites inhibited 70.15 and 71.64%, respectively, of F. proliferatum. Furthermore, B6a altered the morphology and mycelia structure of F. proliferatum under High resolution scanning electron microscopy (HR-SEM). This was supported by an increase (p < 0.05) in the chitin contents (48.03%) and a decrease (p < 0.05) in the extracellular polysaccharide content (48.99%) and endo-β-1,4-glucanase activity (42.32%). The infection of maize seeds with F. proliferatum resulted in a significant decrease (p < 0.05) in root lengths (37%). Relative to the control and the infected seeds, bio-priming with B6a shows a significant increase (p < 0.05) in the root lengths (44.99%), with a significant decrease (p < 0.05) in reactive oxygen species (ROS)-induced oxidative damage. In conclusion, P. terrae B6a may be a good biocontrol candidate and may be formulated into a bio-fungicide to control F. proliferatum and other related phytopathogens in economically important crops.

S-sulfenylation-mediated inhibition of the GSNOR1 activity regulates ovule development in Arabidopsis

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) and nitric oxide (NO) are two critical classes of signaling molecules that regulate plant development and stress responses. The intracellular level of S-nitrosoglutathione (GSNO), a major bioactive NO species, is regulated by the highly conserved GSNO reductase (GSNOR). However, the molecular mechanisms underlying ROS-mediated regulation of GSNOR remain largely unclear. Here, we show that H2O2 negatively regulates the activity of GSNOR1 during ovule development in Arabidopsis. S-sulfenylation of GSNOR1 at Cys-284 inhibits its enzymatic activity. A GSNOR1C284S mutation causes a reduction of the total SNO level in pistils, thereby disrupting NO homeostasis and eventually leading to defective ovule development. These findings illustrate a unique mechanism by which ROS regulates ovule development through S-sulfenylation-mediated inhibition of the GSNOR activity, thereby establishing a molecular link between ROS and NO signaling pathways in reproductive development.

Physiological function and regulation of ascorbate peroxidase isoforms

Ascorbate peroxidase (APX) reduces H2O2 to H2O by utilizing ascorbate as a specific electron donor and constitutes the ascorbate-glutathione cycle in organelles of plants including chloroplasts, cytosol, mitochondria, and peroxisomes. It has been almost 40 years since APX was discovered as an important plant-specific H2O2-scavenging enzyme, during which time many research groups have conducted molecular physiological analyses. It is now clear that APX isoforms function not only just as antioxidant enzymes but also as important factors in intracellular redox regulation through the metabolism of reactive oxygen species. The function of APX isoforms is regulated at multiple steps, from the transcriptional level to post-translational modifications of enzymes, thereby allowing them to respond flexibly to ever-changing environmental factors and physiological phenomena such as cell growth and signal transduction. In this review, we summarize the physiological functions and regulation mechanisms of expression of each APX isoform.

The ascorbate-glutathione cycle coming of age

Concepts regarding the operation of the ascorbate-glutathione cycle and the associated water/water cycle in the processing of metabolically generated hydrogen peroxide and other forms of reactive oxygen species (ROS) are well established in the literature. However, our knowledge of the functions of these cycles and their component enzymes continues to grow and evolve. Recent insights include participation in the intrinsic environmental and developmental signalling pathways that regulate plant growth, development, and defence. In addition to ROS processing, the enzymes of the two cycles not only support the functions of ascorbate and glutathione, they also have 'moonlighting' functions. They are subject to post-translational modifications and have an extensive interactome, particularly with other signalling proteins. In this assessment of current knowledge, we highlight the central position of the ascorbate-glutathione cycle in the network of cellular redox systems that underpin the energy-sensitive communication within the different cellular compartments and integrate plant signalling pathways.

A new oxidative pathway of nitric oxide production from oximes in plants

Nitric oxide (NO) is an essential reactive oxygen species and a signal molecule in plants. Although several studies have proposed the occurrence of oxidative NO production, only reductive routes for NO production, such as the nitrate (NO-3) -upper-reductase pathway, have been evidenced to date in land plants. However, plants grown axenically with ammonium as the sole source of nitrogen exhibit contents of nitrite and NO3-, evidencing the existence of a metabolic pathway for oxidative production of NO. We hypothesized that oximes, such as indole-3-acetaldoxime (IAOx), a precursor to indole-3-acetic acid, are intermediate oxidation products in NO synthesis. We detected the production of NO from IAOx and other oximes catalyzed by peroxidase (POD) enzyme using both 4-amino-5-methylamino-2',7'-difluorescein fluorescence and chemiluminescence. Flavins stimulated the reaction, while superoxide dismutase inhibited it. Interestingly, mouse NO synthase can also use IAOx to produce NO at a lower rate than POD. We provided a full mechanism for POD-dependent NO production from IAOx consistent with the experimental data and supported by density functional theory calculations. We showed that the addition of IAOx to extracts from Medicago truncatula increased the in vitro production of NO, while in vivo supplementation of IAOx and other oximes increased the number of lateral roots, as shown for NO donors, and a more than 10-fold increase in IAOx dehydratase expression. Furthermore, we found that in vivo supplementation of IAOx increased NO production in Arabidopsis thaliana wild-type plants, while prx33-34 mutant plants, defective in POD33-34, had reduced production. Our data show that the release of NO by IAOx, as well as its auxinic effect, explain the superroot phenotype. Collectively, our study reveals that plants produce NO utilizing diverse molecules such as oximes, POD, and flavins, which are widely distributed in the plant kingdom, thus introducing a long-awaited oxidative pathway to NO production in plants. This knowledge has essential implications for understanding signaling in biological systems.

Novel insight into functions of ascorbate peroxidase in higher plants: More than a simple antioxidant enzyme

As plants are sessile organisms, they are inevitably exposed to a variety of environmental stimuli that trigger rapid changes in the generation and disposal of reactive oxygen species such as hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂). A major H₂O₂ scavenging system in plant cells is the ascorbate-glutathione cycle, in which ascorbate peroxidase (APX) catalyzes the conversion of H₂O₂ into water employing ascorbate as specific electron donor. In higher plants, distinct APX isoforms can occur in multiple subcellular compartments, including chloroplasts, mitochondria, and peroxisomes and the cytosol, to modulate organellar and cellular levels of H₂O₂. It is well established that APX plays crucial roles in protecting plant cells against diverse environmental stresses, as well as in plant growth and development. Apart from ascorbate, recently, APXs have been found to have a broader substrate specificity and possess chaperone activity, hence participating various biological processes. In this review, we describe the antioxidant properties of APXs and highlight their novel roles beyond 'ascorbate peroxidases'.

Functions of nitric oxide-mediated post-translational modifications under abiotic stress

Environmental conditions greatly impact plant growth and development. In the current context of both global climate change and land degradation, abiotic stresses usually lead to growth restriction limiting crop production. Plants have evolved to sense and respond to maximize adaptation and survival; therefore, understanding the mechanisms involved in the different converging signaling networks becomes critical for improving plant tolerance. In the last few years, several studies have shown the plant responses against drought and salinity, high and low temperatures, mechanical wounding, heavy metals, hypoxia, UV radiation, or ozone stresses. These threats lead the plant to coordinate a crosstalk among different pathways, highlighting the role of phytohormones and reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (RONS). In particular, plants sense these reactive species through post-translational modification (PTM) of macromolecules such as nucleic acids, proteins, and fatty acids, hence triggering antioxidant responses with molecular implications in the plant welfare. Here, this review compiles the state of the art about how plant systems sense and transduce this crosstalk through PTMs of biological molecules, highlighting the S-nitrosylation of protein targets. These molecular mechanisms finally impact at a physiological level facing the abiotic stressful traits that could lead to establishing molecular patterns underlying stress responses and adaptation strategies.

H2 O2 , NO, and H2 S networks during root development and signalling under physiological and challenging environments: Beneficial or toxic?

Hydrogen peroxide (H₂ O₂ ) is a reactive oxygen species (ROS) and a key modulator of the development and architecture of the root system under physiological and adverse environmental conditions. Nitric oxide (NO) and hydrogen sulphide (H₂ S) also exert myriad functions on plant development and signalling. Accumulating pieces of evidence show that depending upon the dose and mode of applications, NO and H₂ S can have synergistic or antagonistic actions in mediating H₂ O₂ signalling during root development. Thus, H₂ O₂ -NO-H₂ S crosstalk might essentially impart tolerance to elude oxidative stress in roots. Growth and proliferation of root apex involve crucial orchestration of NO and H₂ S-mediated ROS signalling which also comprise other components including mitogen-activated protein kinase, cyclins, cyclin-dependent kinases, respiratory burst oxidase homolog (RBOH), and Ca²⁺ flux. This assessment provides a comprehensive update on the cooperative roles of NO and H₂ S in modulating H₂ O₂ homoeostasis during root development, abiotic stress tolerance, and root-microbe interaction. Furthermore, it also analyses the scopes of some fascinating future investigations associated with strigolactone and karrikins concerning H₂ O₂ -NO-H₂ S crosstalk in plant roots.

Spatial Mapping of Plant N-Glycosylation Cellular Heterogeneity Inside Soybean Root Nodules Provided Insights Into Legume-Rhizobia Symbiosis

Although ubiquitously present, information on the function of complex N-glycan posttranslational modification in plants is very limited and is often neglected. In this work, we adopted an enzyme-assisted matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry imaging strategy to visualize the distribution and identity of N-glycans in soybean root nodules at a cellular resolution. We additionally performed proteomics analysis to probe the potential correlation to proteome changes during symbiotic rhizobia-legume interactions. Our ion images reveal that intense N-glycosylation occurs in the sclerenchyma layer, and inside the infected cells within the infection zone, while morphological structures such as the cortex, uninfected cells, and cells that form the attachment with the root are fewer N-glycosylated. Notably, we observed different N-glycan profiles between soybean root nodules infected with wild-type rhizobia and those infected with mutant rhizobia incapable of efficiently fixing atmospheric nitrogen. The majority of complex N-glycan structures, particularly those with characteristic Lewis-a epitopes, are more abundant in the mutant nodules. Our proteomic results revealed that these glycans likely originated from proteins that maintain the redox balance crucial for proper nitrogen fixation, but also from enzymes involved in N-glycan and phenylpropanoid biosynthesis. These findings indicate the possible involvement of Lewis-a glycans in these critical pathways during legume-rhizobia symbiosis.

Molecular functions of nitric oxide and its potential applications in horticultural crops

Nitric oxide (NO) regulates plant growth, enhances nutrient uptake, and activates disease and stress tolerance mechanisms in most plants, making NO a potential tool for use in improving the yield and quality of horticultural crop species. Although the use of NO in horticulture is still in its infancy, research on NO in model plant species has provided an abundance of valuable information on horticultural crop species. Emerging evidence implies that the bioactivity of NO can occur through many potential mechanisms but occurs mainly through S-nitrosation, the covalent and reversible attachment of NO to cysteine thiol. In this context, NO signaling specifically affects crop development, immunity, and environmental interactions. Moreover, NO can act as a fumigant against a wide range of postharvest diseases and pests. However, for effective use of NO in horticulture, both understanding and exploring the biological significance and potential mechanisms of NO in horticultural crop species are critical. This review provides a picture of our current understanding of how NO is synthesized and transduced in plants, and particular attention is given to the significance of NO in breaking seed dormancy, balancing root growth and development, enhancing nutrient acquisition, mediating stress responses, and guaranteeing food safety for horticultural production.

The outcomes of the functional interplay of nitric oxide and hydrogen sulfide in metal stress tolerance in plants

Phytotoxicity of metals constraints plants health, metabolism and productivity. The sustainable approaches for minimizing major metals-accrued phytotoxicity have been least explored. The gasotransmitters signaling molecules such as nitric oxide (NO) and hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) play a significant role in the mitigation of major consequences of metals stress. Versatile gaseous signaling molecules, NO and H₂S are involved in the regulation of various physiological processes in plants and their tolerance to abiotic stresses. However, literature available on NO or H₂S stand alone, and the major insights into the roles of NO and/or H₂S in plant tolerance, particularly to metals, remained unclear. Given above, this paper aimed to (a) briefly overview metals and highlight their major phytotoxicity; (b) appraises literature reporting potential mechanisms underlying the roles of NO and H₂S in plant-metal tolerance; (c) crosstalk on NO and H₂S in relation to plant metal tolerance. Additionally, major aspects so far unexplored in the current context have also been mentioned.

Comparative analysis of ascorbate peroxidases (APXs) from selected plants with a special focus on Oryza sativa employing public databases

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are produced by plants. Hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) is one important component of ROS and able to modulate plant growth and development at low level and damage plant cells at high concentrations. Ascorbate peroxidase (APX) shows high affinity towards H₂O₂ and plays vital roles in H₂O₂-scavenging. In order to explore the differences of APXs from selected plant species, bioinformatics methods and public databases were used to evaluate the physicochemical properties, conserved motifs, potential modifications and cis-elements in all the APXs, and protein-protein network and expression profiles of rice APXs. The results suggested that APXs in the selected plant species showed high evolutionary conservation and were able to divide into seven groups, group I to VII. Members in the groups contained abundant phosphorylation sites. Interestingly, group I and VII had only PKC site. Additionally, promoters of the APXs contained abundant stress-related cis-elements. APXs in rice plant were able to interact with dehydroascorbate reductase 2. The eight APXs expressed differently in root, leaf, panicle, anther, pistil and seed. Drought, Pi-free, Cd and Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzicola B8-12 treatments were able to significantly alter the expression profiles of rice APXs. This study increases our knowledge to further explore functions and mechanisms of APXs and also guides their applications.

Nitric oxide signaling, metabolism and toxicity in nitrogen-fixing symbiosis

Interactions between legumes and rhizobia lead to the establishment of a symbiotic relationship characterized by the formation of a new organ, the nodule, which facilitates the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen (N2) by nitrogenase through the creation of a hypoxic environment. Significant amounts of nitric oxide (NO) accumulate at different stages of nodule development, suggesting that NO performs specific signaling and/or metabolic functions during symbiosis. NO, which regulates nodule gene expression, accumulates to high levels in hypoxic nodules. NO accumulation is considered to assist energy metabolism within the hypoxic environment of the nodule via a phytoglobin-NO-mediated respiration process. NO is a potent inhibitor of the activity of nitrogenase and other plant and bacterial enzymes, acting as a developmental signal in the induction of nodule senescence. Hence, key questions concern the relative importance of the signaling and metabolic functions of NO versus its toxic action and how NO levels are regulated to be compatible with nitrogen fixation functions. This review analyses these paradoxical roles of NO at various stages of symbiosis, and highlights the role of plant phytoglobins and bacterial hemoproteins in the control of NO accumulation.

Tomato Root Growth Inhibition by Salinity and Cadmium Is Mediated By S-Nitrosative Modifications of ROS Metabolic Enzymes Controlled by S-Nitrosoglutathione Reductase

S-nitrosoglutathione reductase (GSNOR) exerts crucial roles in the homeostasis of nitric oxide (NO) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS) in plant cells through indirect control of S-nitrosation, an important protein post-translational modification in signaling pathways of NO. Using cultivated and wild tomato species, we studied GSNOR function in interactions of key enzymes of reactive oxygen species (ROS) metabolism with RNS mediated by protein S-nitrosation during tomato root growth and responses to salinity and cadmium. Application of a GSNOR inhibitor N6022 increased both NO and S-nitrosothiol levels and stimulated root growth in both genotypes. Moreover, N6022 treatment, as well as S-nitrosoglutathione (GSNO) application, caused intensive S-nitrosation of important enzymes of ROS metabolism, NADPH oxidase (NADPHox) and ascorbate peroxidase (APX). Under abiotic stress, activities of APX and NADPHox were modulated by S-nitrosation. Increased production of H2O2 and subsequent oxidative stress were observed in wild Solanumhabrochaites, together with increased GSNOR activity and reduced S-nitrosothiols. An opposite effect occurred in cultivated S. lycopersicum, where reduced GSNOR activity and intensive S-nitrosation resulted in reduced ROS levels by abiotic stress. These data suggest stress-triggered disruption of ROS homeostasis, mediated by modulation of RNS and S-nitrosation of NADPHox and APX, underlies tomato root growth inhibition by salinity and cadmium stress.

Nitric oxide and ROS mediate autophagy and regulate Alternaria alternata toxin-induced cell death in tobacco BY-2 cells

Synergistic interaction of nitric oxide (NO) and reactive oxygen species (ROS) is essential to initiate cell death mechanisms in plants. Though autophagy is salient in either restricting or promoting hypersensitivity response (HR)-related cell death, the crosstalk between the reactive intermediates and autophagy during hypersensitivity response is paradoxical. In this investigation, the consequences of Alternaria alternata toxin (AaT) in tobacco BY-2 cells were examined. At 3 h, AaT perturbed intracellular ROS homeostasis, altered antioxidant enzyme activities, triggered mitochondrial depolarization and induced autophagy. Suppression of autophagy by 3-Methyladenine caused a decline in cell viability in AaT treated cells, which indicated the vital role of autophagy in cell survival. After 24 h, AaT facilitated Ca2+ influx with an accumulation of reactive oxidant intermediates and NO, to manifest necrotic cell death. Inhibition of NO accumulation by 2-(4-Carboxyphenyl)-4,4,5,5-tetramethylimidazoline-1-oxyl-3-oxide (cPTIO) decreased the level of necrotic cell death, and induced autophagy, which suggests NO accumulation represses autophagy and facilitates necrotic cell death at 24 h. Application of N-acetyl-L-cysteine at 3 h, confirmed ROS to be the key initiator of autophagy, and together with cPTIO for 24 h, revealed the combined effects of NO and ROS is required for necrotic HR cell death.

Tyrosine nitration of cytosolic peroxidase is probably triggered as a long distance signaling response in sunflower seedling cotyledons subjected to salt stress

Present work focuses on tissue and concentration-dependent effect of nitric oxide (NO) on the modulation of cytosolic peroxidase (POD; EC 1.11.1.7) activity in 2-day old etiolated sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) seedlings. Exogenously supplied NO (in the form of sodium nitroprusside [SNP] or diethylenetriamine NONOate [DETA]; 125 to 500 μM) results in noteworthy enhancement in seedling growth in a concentration dependent manner irrespective of salt-stress and differentially affects POD activity in 2-day old seedling cotyledons. Elevated NO availability leads to an increase in the specific activity of POD in a concentration-dependent manner within 48 hrs as a rapid signaling response. Purification of POD protein using immunoprecipitation technique has shown that cotyledons derived from salt stressed seedlings exhibit a higher extent of tyrosine nitration of POD as compared to the control seedlings. Out of the four tyrosine residues found in the amino acid sequence of POD, the one at position 100 has been predicted to undergo nitration. Thus, a probable NO-POD crosstalk is evident in sunflower seedling cotyledons accompanying salt stress.

S-Nitrosylation inhibits the kinase activity of tomato phosphoinositide-dependent kinase 1 (PDK1)

It is well known that the reactive oxygen species NO can trigger cell death in plants and other organisms, but the underlying molecular mechanisms are not well understood. Here we provide evidence that NO may trigger cell death in tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) by inhibiting the activity of phosphoinositide-dependent kinase 1 (SlPDK1), a conserved negative regulator of cell death in yeasts, mammals, and plants, via S-nitrosylation. Biotin-switch assays indicated that SlPDK1 is a target of S-nitrosylation. Moreover, the kinase activity of SlPDK1 was inhibited by S-nitrosoglutathione in a concentration-dependent manner, indicating that SlPDK1 activity is abrogated by S-nitrosylation. The S-nitrosoglutathione-induced inhibition was reversible in the presence of a reducing agent but additively enhanced by hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂). Our LC-MS/MS analyses further indicated that SlPDK1 is primarily S-nitrosylated on a cysteine residue at position 128 (Cys¹²⁸), and substitution of Cys¹²⁸ with serine completely abolished SlPDK1 kinase activity, suggesting that S-nitrosylation of Cys¹²⁸ is responsible for SlPDK1 inhibition. In summary, our results establish a potential link between NO-triggered cell death and inhibition of the kinase activity of tomato PDK1.

Asada-Halliwell pathway maintains redox status in Dioscorea alata tuber which helps in germination

Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) are important regulatory molecules governing physiological processes. In the present study a biochemical and proteome level comparison of two contrasting growth stages of Dioscorea alata tuber namely germinating and mature tuber was performed in order to understand the tuber physiology and biochemistry. Existence of all the component enzymes [APx (ascorbate peroxidase), GR (glutathione reductase), DHAR (dehydroascorbate reductase), MDHAR (mono-dehydroascorbate reductase)] and major products [ascorbate (ASC) and glutathione (GSH)] of the cycle showed an operational Asada-Halliwell cycle in the tuber. A 2.65 fold increase in ASC content & a 3.8 fold increase in GR activity fortified the redox milieu during germination. In contrast a 5 fold higher H2O2 content (due to 3.08 fold lower APx activity) and accumulation of reactive nitrogen species (RNS) such as nitric oxide (NO, 2.4-fold) and S-nitrosothiol (SNO, 2.08 fold) contributed to overall oxidative conditions in the mature tuber. The carbonic anhydrase (CA, 7.5 fold), DHAR (5.31 fold) and MDHAR (7 fold) activities were higher in the germinating tuber in comparison with the mature tuber. GSNO negatively regulated the CA (3.6 & 3.95 fold), MDHAR (7.5 & 1.5 fold) and APx (2.3 & 1.81 fold) while another NO donor, CysNO negatively regulated the DHAR (2.24 & 1.32 fold) activity in the mature and germinating stages respectively indicating again that the lesser inhibition by NO (via nitrosylation) may be because of overall reducing environment in the germinating tuber. Increased SNO leading to S-nitrosylation of dioscorin was confirmed by Biotin switch assay. This is the first report showing dioscorin nitrosylation. The present analysis showed differential redox regulation and also suggests the physiological relevance of CA, DHAR, MDHAR, APx & GR in tuber germination for the first time. These enzymes may be used as potential markers of tuber germination in future.

Protein S-nitrosylation in photosynthetic organisms: A comprehensive overview with future perspectives

BACKGROUND

The free radical nitric oxide (NO) and derivative reactive nitrogen species (RNS) play essential roles in cellular redox regulation mainly through protein S-nitrosylation, a redox post-translational modification in which specific cysteines are converted to nitrosothiols.

SCOPE OF VIEW

This review aims to discuss the current state of knowledge, as well as future perspectives, regarding protein S-nitrosylation in photosynthetic organisms.

MAJOR CONCLUSIONS

NO, synthesized by plants from different sources (nitrite, arginine), provides directly or indirectly the nitroso moiety of nitrosothiols. Biosynthesis, reactivity and scavenging systems of NO/RNS, determine the NO-based signaling including the rate of protein nitrosylation. Denitrosylation reactions compete with nitrosylation in setting the levels of nitrosylated proteins in vivo.

GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE

Based on a combination of proteomic, biochemical and genetic approaches, protein nitrosylation is emerging as a pervasive player in cell signaling networks. Specificity of protein nitrosylation and integration among different post-translational modifications are among the major challenges for future experimental studies in the redox biology field. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Plant Proteomics--a bridge between fundamental processes and crop production, edited by Dr. Hans-Peter Mock.

Mechanisms of nitric oxide crosstalk with reactive oxygen species scavenging enzymes during abiotic stress tolerance in plants

Nitric oxide (NO) acts in a concentration and redox-dependent manner to counteract oxidative stress either by directly acting as an antioxidant through scavenging reactive oxygen species (ROS), such as superoxide anions (O(2)(-)*), to form peroxynitrite (ONOO(-)) or by acting as a signaling molecule, thereby altering gene expression. NO can interact with different metal centres in proteins, such as heme-iron, zinc-sulfur clusters, iron-sulfur clusters, and copper, resulting in the formation of a stable metal-nitrosyl complex or production of varied biochemical signals, which ultimately leads to modification of protein structure/function. The thiols (ferrous iron-thiol complex and nitrosothiols) are also involved in the metabolism and mobilization of NO. Thiols bind to NO and transport it to the site of action whereas nitrosothiols release NO after intercellular diffusion and uptake into the target cells. S-nitrosoglutathione (GSNO) also has the ability to transnitrosylate proteins. It is an NO˙ reservoir and a long-distance signaling molecule. Tyrosine nitration of proteins has been suggested as a biomarker of nitrosative stress as it can lead to either activation or inhibition of target proteins. The exact molecular mechanism(s) by which exogenous and endogenously generated NO (or reactive nitrogen species) modulate the induction of various genes affecting redox homeostasis, are being extensively investigated currently by various research groups. Present review provides an in-depth analysis of the mechanisms by which NO interacts with and modulates the activity of various ROS scavenging enzymes, particularly accompanying ROS generation in plants in response to varied abiotic stress.

Differential molecular response of monodehydroascorbate reductase and glutathione reductase by nitration and S-nitrosylation

The ascorbate-glutathione cycle is a metabolic pathway that detoxifies hydrogen peroxide and involves enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidants. Proteomic studies have shown that some enzymes in this cycle such as ascorbate peroxidase (APX), monodehydroascorbate reductase (MDAR), and glutathione reductase (GR) are potential targets for post-translational modifications (PMTs) mediated by nitric oxide-derived molecules. Using purified recombinant pea peroxisomal MDAR and cytosolic and chloroplastic GR enzymes produced in Escherichia coli, the effects of peroxynitrite (ONOO(-)) and S-nitrosoglutathione (GSNO) which are known to mediate protein nitration and S-nitrosylation processes, respectively, were analysed. Although ONOO(-) and GSNO inhibit peroxisomal MDAR activity, chloroplastic and cytosolic GR were not affected by these molecules. Mass spectrometric analysis of the nitrated MDAR revealed that Tyr213, Try292, and Tyr345 were exclusively nitrated to 3-nitrotyrosine by ONOO(-). The location of these residues in the structure of pea peroxisomal MDAR reveals that Tyr345 is found at 3.3 Å of His313 which is involved in the NADP-binding site. Site-directed mutagenesis confirmed Tyr345 as the primary site of nitration responsible for the inhibition of MDAR activity by ONOO(-). These results provide new insights into the molecular regulation of MDAR which is deactivated by nitration and S-nitrosylation. However, GR was not affected by ONOO(-) or GSNO, suggesting the existence of a mechanism to conserve redox status by maintaining the level of reduced GSH. Under a nitro-oxidative stress induced by salinity (150mM NaCl), MDAR expression (mRNA, protein, and enzyme activity levels) was increased, probably to compensate the inhibitory effects of S-nitrosylation and nitration on the enzyme. The present data show the modulation of the antioxidative response of key enzymes in the ascorbate-glutathione cycle by nitric oxide (NO)-PTMs, thus indicating the close involvement of NO and reactive oxygen species metabolism in antioxidant defence against nitro-oxidative stress situations in plants.

Nitric oxide is a ubiquitous signal for maintaining redox balance in plant cells: regulation of ascorbate peroxidase as a case study

Oxidative and nitrosative stresses and their respective antioxidant responses are common metabolic adjustments operating in all biological systems. These stresses result from an increase in reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS) and an imbalance in the antioxidant response. Plants respond to ROS and RNS accumulation by increasing the level of the antioxidant molecules glutathione and ascorbate and by activating specific antioxidant enzymes. Nitric oxide (NO) is a free radical considered to be toxic or protective depending on its concentration, combination with ROS compounds, and subcellular localization. In this review we focus on the mechanisms of NO action in combination with ROS on the regulation of the antioxidant system in plants. In particular, we describe the redox post-translational modifications of cytosolic ascorbate peroxidase and its influence on enzyme activity. The regulation of ascorbate peroxidase activity by NO as a redox sensor of acute oxidative stress or as part of a hormone-induced signalling pathway leading to lateral root development is presented and discussed.

S-nitrosylation positively regulates ascorbate peroxidase activity during plant stress responses

Nitric oxide (NO) and reactive oxygen species (ROS) are two classes of key signaling molecules involved in various developmental processes and stress responses in plants. The burst of NO and ROS triggered by various stimuli activates downstream signaling pathways to cope with abiotic and biotic stresses. Emerging evidence suggests that the interplay of NO and ROS plays a critical role in regulating stress responses. However, the underpinning molecular mechanism remains poorly understood. Here, we show that NO positively regulates the activity of the Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) cytosolic ascorbate peroxidase1 (APX1). We found that S-nitrosylation of APX1 at cysteine (Cys)-32 enhances its enzymatic activity of scavenging hydrogen peroxide, leading to the increased resistance to oxidative stress, whereas a substitution mutation at Cys-32 causes the reduction of ascorbate peroxidase activity and abolishes its responsiveness to the NO-enhanced enzymatic activity. Moreover, S-nitrosylation of APX1 at Cys-32 also plays an important role in regulating immune responses. These findings illustrate a unique mechanism by which NO regulates hydrogen peroxide homeostasis in plants, thereby establishing a molecular link between NO and ROS signaling pathways.

Dual regulation of cytosolic ascorbate peroxidase (APX) by tyrosine nitration and S-nitrosylation

Post-translational modifications (PTMs) mediated by nitric oxide (NO)-derived molecules have become a new area of research, as they can modulate the function of target proteins. Proteomic data have shown that ascorbate peroxidase (APX) is one of the potential targets of PTMs mediated by NO-derived molecules. Using recombinant pea cytosolic APX, the impact of peroxynitrite (ONOO-) and S-nitrosoglutathione (GSNO), which are known to mediate protein nitration and S-nitrosylation processes, respectively, was analysed. While peroxynitrite inhibits APX activity, GSNO enhances its enzymatic activity. Mass spectrometric analysis of the nitrated APX enabled the determination that Tyr5 and Tyr235 were exclusively nitrated to 3-nitrotyrosine by peroxynitrite. Residue Cys32 was identified by the biotin switch method as S-nitrosylated. The location of these residues on the structure of pea APX reveals that Tyr235 is found at the bottom of the pocket where the haem group is enclosed, whereas Cys32 is at the ascorbate binding site. Pea plants grown under saline (150 mM NaCl) stress showed an enhancement of both APX activity and S-nitrosylated APX, as well as an increase of H2O2, NO, and S-nitrosothiol (SNO) content that can justify the induction of the APX activity. The results provide new insight into the molecular mechanism of the regulation of APX which can be both inactivated by irreversible nitration and activated by reversible S-nitrosylation.

ROS generation and proline metabolism in calli of halophyte Nitraria tangutorum Bobr. to sodium nitroprusside treatment

Nitric oxide (NO) is a stress factor or a signal molecule involved in various plant physiological and developmental processes. In the present study, the generation of reactive oxygen species and the metabolism of proline due to different sodium nitroprusside (SNP, an NO donor) concentrations were investigated in callus from halophyte Nitraria tangutorum Bobr. Treatment with SNP led to significant increases of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) content and cell viability but notable reductions in hydrogen radical level and lipid peroxidation degree, and superoxide onion (O2 (-)) content also enhanced in 100 μM SNP-treated calli. Using a chemical inhibitor for plasma membrane (PM) NADPH oxidase diphenylene iodonium (DPI), we found low O2 (-) generation in untreated and 25 μM SNP-treated calli, whereas in those treated with 100 μM SNP O2 (-) level exhibited a very little alteration, comparable to the absence of DPI. These suggest a high activity of PM NADPH oxidase in untreated calli. H2O2 scavenging enzymes (catalase, peroxidase [POD] and ascorbate peroxidase) and H2O2 forming enzymes (superoxide dismutase [SOD], cell wall-POD and diamine oxidase [DAO]) stimulated significantly in calli treated with different SNP concentrations while glutathione reductase activity decreased. In addition, a reduction in proline content was observed in SNP-treated calli. Moreover, different SNP concentrations stimulated proline dehydrogenase (PDH) and ornithine δ-aminotransferase but inhibited r-glutamyl kinase (GK). In conclusion, our results suggest that the increasing H2O2 generation was associated with the stimulation of SOD, cell wall-POD and DAO, and that the reduction of proline content might be the consequence of increased PDH activity and decreased GK activity in N. tangutorum Bobr. calli under SNP treatment.

Auxin induces redox regulation of ascorbate peroxidase 1 activity by S-nitrosylation/denitrosylation balance resulting in changes of root growth pattern in Arabidopsis

S-Nitrosylation of Cys residues is one of the molecular mechanisms driven by nitric oxide (NO) for regulating biological functions of key proteins. While the studies on S-nitrosylation of Cys residues have served for identifying SNO proteomes, the physiological relevance of protein S-nitrosylation/denitrosylation remains poorly understood. In this study, it is shown that auxin influences the balance of S-nitrosylated/denitrosylated proteins in roots of Arabidopsis seedlings. 2D-PAGE allowed the identification of ascorbate peroxidase 1 (APX1) as target of auxin-induced denitrosylation in roots. Auxin causes APX1 denitrosylation and partial inhibition of APX1 activity in Arabidopsis roots. In agreement, the S-nitrosylated form of recombinant APX1 expressed in Escherichia coli is more active than the denitrosylated form. Consistently, Arabidopsis apx1 mutants have increased H₂O₂ accumulation in roots, shorter roots, and less sensitivity to auxin than the wild type. It is postulated that an auxin-regulated counterbalance of APX1 S-nitrosylation/denitrosylation contributes to a fine-tuned control of root development and determination of root architecture.