Leishmania spp. Infection Rate and Feeding Patterns of Sand Flies (Diptera: Psychodidae) from a Hyperendemic Cutaneous Leishmaniasis Community in Panamá

Indicators sandflies and environment associated to spatial landscaping change in Chocó Biosphere Reserve UNESCO

BACKGROUND OBJECTIVES

Sandflies are vector insects associated with terrestrial forest ecosystems; in the Ecuadorian Andes, they participate in the transmission of human cutaneous leishmaniasis. This geographical area represents an opportunity to evaluate the role of sandflies as bioindicators of the degree of intervention of tropical humid forest ecosystems (THF) associated with changes in the ecology of the local landscape.

METHODS

CDC-light traps were used for collecting adult sandflies in February 2020 in a humid tropical forest within the Chocó Biosphere Reserve. All species were identified using morphological keys. Analysis data about abundance, richness, species accumulation, diversity index, species composition communities, species sex proportion, spatial sandflies environmental, Renyi's Diversity Profile were performed to compare six spatial habitats in Mashpi locality, Ecuador.

RESULTS

Sandflies were collected (n-1435); the main species are represented by Trichophoromyia reburra, Nyssomyia trapidoi, Psathyromyia aclydifera, Psychodopygus panamensis and Lutzomyia hartmanni. Only Th. reburra is associated with not intervened forest, while the other three species are associated with intervened forest within Mashpi in the Choco Biosphere Reserve. The secondary forest has major sandflies' richness, while the primary forest exhibits major abundance.

INTERPRETATION CONCLUSION

Th. reburra is a sandfly restricted to the Andean Forest and is a bioindicator of the high environmental health quality of the forest, while Ny. trapidoi and Pa. aclydifera are bioindicators of environmental disturbances in the forest. Additionally, Ps. panamensis, Lu. hartmanni and Ny. trapidoi are bioindicators of human impact and the risk of leishmaniasis.

Detection of Internal Transcribed Spacer 1 and hsp70 Genetic Markers Using Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphisms and Sequencing in Identification of Leishmania Species Causing Tegumentary Leishmaniasis in Brazil

The identification of Leishmania species that cause tegumentary leishmaniasis (TL) is important for taxonomic and prognostic purposes. Molecular analysis using different Leishmania genomic targets is the most useful method for identifying Leishmania species. Therefore, we evaluated the performance of ribosomal RNA internal transcribed spacer 1 (ITS1) and heat shock protein (hsp70) genetic markers by polymerase chain reaction (PCR), followed by restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis (RFLP) and sequencing, for identification of Leishmania species. Samples from 84 Brazilian patients were amplified. Internal transcribed spacer 1 PCR followed by RFLP (HaeIII) [ITS1-RFLP (HaeIII)] identified 46.4% (39/84) of the samples as compatible with the Viannia subgenus. Internal transcribed spacer 1 PCR followed by sequencing (ITS1-sequencing) identified Leishmania (Viannia) braziliensis in 91.7% (77/84) of the TL samples, Leishmania (Leishmania) amazonensis in 3.6% (3/84), L. (V.) guyanensis in 2.4% (2/84), and L. (L.) infantum in 1.2% (1/84). One of the samples showed the same proportion of similarity with L. (V.) guyanensis and L. (V.) panamensis. hsp70 nested PCR followed by RFLP (HaeIII) [nested hsp70-RFLP (HaeIII)] identified 91.7% (77/84) of the samples as compatible with L. (V.) braziliensis/L. (V.) naiffi, 3.6% (3/84) with L. (L.) amazonensis, 1.2% (1/84) with L. (L.) infantum, and 3.6% (3/84) with L. (V.) guyanensis. hsp70 PCR followed by sequencing (hsp70-sequencing) identified L. (V.) braziliensis in 91.7% (77/84) of the TL samples, L. (L.) amazonensis in 3.6% (3/84), L. (V.) guyanensis in 3.6% (3/84), and L. (L.) infantum in 1.2% (1/84). Our findings clearly showed that nested hsp70-RFLP (HaeIII) is better than ITS1-RFLP (HaeIII) and that ITS1 or hsp70 PCR followed by sequencing was adequate for identifying Leishmania species. We also found that Leishmania (Viannia) braziliensis is the most common species causing TL in Brazil. Therefore, sequencing multiple target genes such as ITS1 and hsp 70 is more accurate than RFLP for identifying Leishmania species.

Trypanosoma cruzi infection in dogs along the US-Mexico border: R0 changes with vector species composition

Infection with Trypanosoma cruzi, etiological agent of Chagas disease, is common in US government working dogs along the US-Mexico border. This 3145 km long border comprises four states: Texas (TX), New Mexico (NM), Arizona (AZ) and California (CA) with diverse ecosystems and several triatomine (a.k.a., kissing bug) species, primary vectors of T. cruzi in this region. The kissing bug (Heteroptera: Reduviidae) community ranging from CA to TX includes Triatoma protracta (Uhler), Triatoma recurva (Stål) and Triatoma rubida (Uhler) and becomes dominated by Triatoma gerstaeckeri Stål in TX. Here, we ask if T. cruzi infection dynamics in dogs varies along this border region, potentially reflecting changes in vector species and their vectorial capacity. Using reversible catalytic models of infection, where seropositivity can be lost, we estimated an R0 (Estimate ± S.E.) of 1.192 ± 0.084 for TX and NM. In contrast, seropositivity decayed to zero as dogs aged in AZ and CA. These results suggest that dogs are likely infected by T. cruzi during their training in western TX, with a force of infection large enough for keeping R0 above 1, i.e., the disease endemically established, in TX and NM. In AZ and CA, a lower force of infection, probably associated with different vector species communities and associated vectorial capacity and/or different lineages of T. cruzi, results in dogs decreasing their seropositivity with age.

Ecological interactions of sand flies, hosts, and Leishmania panamensis in an endemic area of cutaneous leishmaniasis in Colombia

BACKGROUND

The transmission dynamics of leishmaniasis are complex. There is also a lack of information about the ecological relationships between the vector/host/parasite at a more local and specific level. The Andean region concentrates more than 50% of Colombia's cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) cases. The study of the ecological interactions of sand flies through the identification of blood sources has provided information on the female's opportunistic behavior, feeding on various hosts. Therefore, this study aimed to determine sand flies' ecological interactions with Leishmania parasites and their blood sources in an endemic area of CL.

RESULTS

A total of 4,621 sand flies were collected, comprising 20 species, in which the most abundant were Nyssomyia yuilli yuilli (55.4%), Psychodopygus ayrozai (14.5%) and Ps. panamensis (13.4%). Sequences of 12S gene fragment were analyzed using the BLASTn search tool. Blood-meal source identification was successfully performed for 47 sand flies, detecting seven vertebrate species, human and armadillo being the most frequent. Leishmania DNA was amplified in four female pools, constituted by Ny. yuilli yuilli and Ps. ayrozai, and the identification through RFLP detected Leishmania (Viannia) panamensis in the positive pools.

CONCLUSIONS

The interactions between the sand fly species, local mammalian fauna and the Leishmania parasite in this active focus of CL, provide evidence of the potential role of two different species in the maintenance of the parasite transmission, important information for the understanding of the ecoepidemiology and transmission dynamics of the disease in Andean endemic areas. However its necessary further evaluations of the vector and host competence in the transmission and maintenance of Leishmania spp, in these complex and diverse areas.

Concurrent molecular characterization of sand flies and Leishmania parasites by amplicon-based next-generation sequencing

BACKGROUND

Phlebotomine sand flies are vectors of Leishmania parasites, which are the causative agents of leishmaniasis. Herein, we developed an amplicon-based next-generation sequencing (Amp-NGS) to characterize sand flies and Leishmania parasites simultaneously targeting partial fragments of 18S rDNA and ITS1 genes, respectively.

METHODS

Our assay was optimized using reference sand fly (n = 8) and Leishmania spp. (n = 9) samples and validated using wild-caught sand flies from Palestine. The assay was highly specific, and all DNA references were successfully identified to the species level.

RESULTS

Among the wild-caught sand flies (n = 187), Phlebotomus spp. represented 95% of the collected samples (177/187), including Ph. sergenti (147/187, 79%), Ph. papatasi (19/187, 10.2%), Ph. perfiliewi (3/187, 1.6%), Ph. tobbi (2/187, 1.2%) and Ph. syriacus (6/187, 3.2%). Sergentomyia spp. represented only 5% (10/187) of the collected samples and included S. dentata (n = 6), S. fallax (n = 2), S. schwetzi (n = 1) and S. ghesquiere (n = 1). The study observed strong positive correlation between sand fly identification results of the Amp-NGS and morphological identification method (r = 0.84, df = 185, P < 0.001). Some discrepancies between the two methods in the identification of closely related species (i.e. Ph. perfiliewi, Ph. tobbi and Ph. syriacus) were observed. Leishmania DNA was detected and identified as L. tropica in 14 samples (14/187, 7.5%).

CONCLUSIONS

Our assay was sensitive to detect (limit of detection was 0.0016 ng/reaction) and identify Leishmania DNA in sand flies, thus representing a new tool for studying sand flies and their associated Leishmania parasites in endemic areas.

First report of imported canine visceral leishmaniasis cases in Panama, Central America: Public health implications

According to the last leishmaniasis report from the Pan American Health Organization (2021) so far Panama is considered free of visceral leishmaniasis (VL). Although the presence of potential vectors and reservoirs involved in the VL transmission cycle have been described in some rural regions of the country, no cases have been reported in humans and domestic or wild animals. Dogs play an important role in the urban transmission of VL; therefore, it is important to detect possible cases of canine visceral leishmaniasis (CVL) in the country. In this sense,this study reports for the first time the Leishmania (Leishmania) infantum infection in imported dogs in Panama. Eleven dogs with clinical suspicion of CVL were evaluated by parasitological (bone marrow aspirate smear), serological (indirect immunofluorescence and/or reference immunochromatographic rapid test) and molecular tests (conventional PCR). The dogs included in this study were analyzed during the period from 2013 to 2020. All dogs presented clinical manifestations compatible with CVL. The samples were initially evaluated by smears and/or rapid serological tests by private practice veterinarians, and later confirmed by serological and/or molecular tests at the national reference laboratory for Leishmania diagnosis. The diagnosis was confirmed in 5/11 dogs by serological, parasitological and/or conventionals PCR targeting kDNA minicircle and Hsp70 gene. Leishmania (L.) infantum species was identified in 3/5 dogs by PCR-RFLP and by sequencing Hsp70-PCR products. This study evidenced the need to increase awareness of private practitioners as well as public health veterinarians on visceral leishmaniasis (VL), and to consider this parasitosis in the differential diagnosis of dogs with clinical and epidemiological characteristics compatible with the disease.

Plasmodium vivax Genetic Diversity in Panama: Challenges for Malaria Elimination in Mesoamerica

Panama and all nations within the Mesoamerican region have committed to eliminate malaria within this decade. With more than 90% of the malaria cases in this region caused by Plasmodium vivax, an efficient national/regional elimination plan must include a comprehensive study of this parasite's genetic diversity. Here, we retrospectively analyzed P. vivax genetic diversity in autochthonous and imported field isolates collected in different endemic regions in Panama from 2007 to 2020, using highly polymorphic markers (csp, msp-1, and msp-3α). We did the analysis using molecular techniques that are cost-effective for malaria molecular surveillance within Mesoamerica. Thus, we used molecular analyses that are feasible for malaria molecular surveillance within the region, and that can provide useful information for policy and decision making about malaria elimination. We also evaluated if haplotypes established by combining the genotypes found in these genes were associated with relevant epidemiological variables and showed structure across the transmission foci that have been observed in Panama. Ten different haplotypes were identified, some of them strongly associated with geographical origin, age, and collection year. Phylogenetic analysis of csp (central repeat domain) revealed that both major variant types (vk210 and vk247) were circulating in Panama. Variant vk247 was restricted to the eastern endemic regions, while vk210 was predominant (77.3%) and widespread, displaying higher diversity (14 alleles) and geographically biased alleles. The regional implications of these molecular findings for the control of P. vivax malaria to achieve elimination across Mesoamerica are discussed.

Diversity, Co-Occurrence, and Nestedness Patterns of Sand Fly Species (Diptera: Psychodidae) in Two Rural Areas of Western Panamá

Simple Summary

Sand flies are insects that can transmit the parasites causing leishmaniasis, a major neglected tropical disease. In the Americas, these insects are highly diverse, and unlike what is observed for other vector-borne diseases, many species co-occur in sites where this disease affects human populations. Here, we present results from a two-year-long study where we study how the number of species changes in two rural areas of Western Panamá with different land use cover and through the dry and wet seasons. We found that species number increased during the wet season and in plots with higher natural forest cover and that species number decreased in both areas in plots when the forest cover decreased, with some species changing through the seasons, and some species disappearing when comparing the sand fly faunas of the most forested with less forested plots. However, our results suggest that seasonality, or the change from a dry to rainy season, can be a more important driver of the number of species locally observed in the studied areas.

Abstract

Cutaneous Leishmaniasis transmission in the New World is observed in areas with rich sand fly species’ faunas. The diversity and composition of sand fly species can change in response to seasonal weather and land use changes. Here, we present results from a two-year-long study where we collected, using Centers for Disease Control (CDC) light traps, sand flies from two rural areas, Las Pavas (LP) and Trinidad de las Minas (T) in western Panamá. Over 710 trap-nights, we collected 16,156 sand flies from 15 genera and 35 species. We identified 34 species in T, and the most abundant species collected was Nyssomyia trapidoi (Fairchild and Hertig, 1952) (n = 2278, 37%), followed by Psychodopygus panamensis (Shannon, 1926) (n = 1112, 18%), and Trichopygomyia triramula (Fairchild and Hertig, 1952) (n = 1063, 17%). In LP, we identified 26 species, and the most abundant species collected were Ty. triramula (n = 4729, 48%), and Ps. panamensis (n = 3444, 35%). We estimated a higher species’ richness in T (Chao2 ± S.E.: 36.58 ± 3.84) than in LP (27.49 ± 2.28). In T, species’ richness was significantly higher in the rainy season, but no seasonal differences were observed in LP. Species’ assemblages were nested in the two areas. Phlebotomine sand fly species’ abundance increased at the two sites during the rainy season. Our data suggest that seasonality is more important than land use as a factor driving sand fly species’ diversity at the studied sites.

Molecular Identification of Parasites Causing Cutaneous Leishmaniasis in Panama

Isolates from 475 cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) patients from three endemic regions were studied by three typing techniques. The molecular analysis from lesion scrapings based on hsp70 PCR-RFLP showed that 78.1% (371/475) restriction patterns corresponded to Leishmania (Viannia) panamensis, 19% (90/475) to Leishmania (Viannia) guyanensis, and 3.0% (14/475) to Leishmania (Viannia) braziliensis. Promastigotes isolated by culture from lesions of 228 patients (48.0%, 228/475) were identified by multi-locus enzyme electrophoresis. Of them, 95.2% (217/228) were typified as L. (V.) panamensis, 1.3% (3/228) as L. (V.) guyanensis, 2.2% (5/228) as L. (V.) braziliensis, and 1.3% (3/228) as hybrids (L. [V.] braziliensis/L. [V.] panamensis). However, a partial sequencing analysis of the hsp70 gene from 77 selected samples showed 16.9% (13/77) typified as L. (V.) panamensis, 68.8% (53/77) as Leishmania (V.) sp., 1, 3.9% (3/77) as L. (V.) guyanensis, 1.3% (1/77) as L. (V.) braziliensis outlier, 2.6% (2/77) as Leishmania (Viannia) naiffi, 2.6% as (2/77) Leishmania (V.) sp., and 2 and 3.9% (3/77) hybrid isolates of L. (V.) braziliensis/L. (V.) guyanensis. These results confirm L. (V.) panamensis as the predominant species and cause of CL lesions in Panama and that L. (V.) guyanensis, L. (V.) braziliensis, and L. (V.) naiffi are circulating to a lower degree. Furthermore, the determination of parasite isolates belonging to atypical clusters and hybrid isolates suggests the circulation of genetic variants with important implications for the epidemiology and clinical follow-up of CL in Panama. No evidence of the existence of parasites of the Leishmania (Leishmania) mexicana complex in Panamanian territory was found in this study.

Plasmodium falciparum Genetic Diversity in Panamá Based on glurp, msp-1 and msp-2 Genes: Implications for Malaria Elimination in Mesoamerica

Panamá, together with all the nations in Mesoamerica, has committed to eliminate malaria from the region by 2020. As these countries approach malaria elimination and local transmission decreases, an active molecular surveillance to identify genotypes circulating along the border areas is particularly needed to accurately infer infection origin, drug resistance and disease propagation patterns in the region. This study evaluated the genetic diversity and allele frequencies of msp-1, msp-2 and glurp genes using different molecular analyses (nested PCR, PCR-restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) and sequencing) from 106 autochthonous and imported P. falciparum isolates collected from different endemic areas in Panamá between 2003 and 2019. We also explored if P. falciparum genotypes assessed with these molecular markers were associated with relevant malaria epidemiological parameters using a multiple correspondence analysis. A strong association of certain local haplotypes with their geographic distribution in endemic areas, but also with parasite load and presence of gametocytes, was evidenced. Few multiclonal infections and low genetic diversity among locally transmitted P. falciparum samples were detected, consequent with the low transmission intensity of this parasite in Panamá, a pattern likely to be extended across Mesoamerica. In addition, several imported cases were genetically dissimilar to local infections and representative of more diverse extra-continental lineages.

Feeding Habits of Vector Mosquitoes in Harris County, TX, 2018

Mosquito-borne pathogens contribute significantly to the global burden of infectious diseases and are a continuing public health concern in the United States. Blood feeding by vector mosquitoes is a critical step in the transmission of human pathogens. Continuous surveillance of mosquito feeding patterns, especially in major population centers, is necessary for sustainable, effective control strategies. To better understand female feeding habits in Harris County, TX, we trapped mosquitoes from various locations, distributed among urban and semi-urban environments. Bloodmeal hosts were determined using a cytochrome C oxidase I DNA barcoding strategy. We identified a diverse array of vertebrate hosts with a high degree of avian host utilization, most surprisingly from anthropophilic species like Aedes aegypti (L.). We also detected sequences from two different vertebrate hosts in about half of specimens examined, suggesting that multiple bloodmeals had been acquired in the same feeding cycle by a sizable fraction of females in both urban and semi-urban locations. The high proportion of feeding on domestic chickens may indicate that a significant number of homeowners are rearing chickens within close proximity to study trap sites. As non-amplifying hosts, chickens may have a diluting effect on West Nile virus, as well as a zooprophylactic effect in their immediate vicinities. Ultimately, spatial and temporal host utilization patterns add insight into potential disease transmission dynamics, thereby informing vector control strategies in Harris County and other metropolitan areas.

Putative Role of Arthropod Vectors in African Swine Fever Virus Transmission in Relation to Their Bio-Ecological Properties

African swine fever (ASF) is one of the most important diseases in Suidae due to its significant health and socioeconomic consequences and represents a major threat to the European pig industry, especially in the absence of any available treatment or vaccine. In fact, with its high mortality rate and the subsequent trade restrictions imposed on affected countries, ASF can dramatically disrupt the pig industry in afflicted countries. In September 2018, ASF was unexpectedly identified in wild boars from southern Belgium in the province of Luxembourg, not far from the Franco-Belgian border. The French authorities rapidly commissioned an expert opinion on the risk of ASF introduction and dissemination into metropolitan France. In Europe, the main transmission routes of the virus comprise direct contact between infected and susceptible animals and indirect transmission through contaminated material or feed. However, the seasonality of the disease in some pig farms in Baltic countries, including outbreaks in farms with high biosecurity levels, have led to questions on the possible involvement of arthropods in the transmission of the virus. This review explores the current body of knowledge on the most common arthropod families present in metropolitan France. We examine their potential role in spreading ASF-by active biological or mechanical transmission or by passive transport or ingestion-in relation to their bio-ecological properties. It also highlights the existence of significant gaps in our knowledge on vector ecology in domestic and wild boar environments and in vector competence for ASFV transmission. Filling these gaps is essential to further understanding ASF transmission in order to thus implement appropriate management measures.

Sandflies in an endemic area for Visceral Leishmaniasis in Northeastern Brazil

Abstract Phlebotomines of the genus Lutzomyia are important vector for species of Leishmania, the etiological agent of leishmaniasis. The aim of this study was to assess the diversity of sandflies in an endemic area for Visceral Leishmaniasis (VL). Sampling was performed in four localities on the coast of the municipality of Goiana, state of Pernambuco, Northeastern Brazil. Specimens were collected monthly on three consecutive nights, from November 2017 to October 2018. CDC light traps were installed at a height of 1.5 m above the ground, in two ecotypes (i.e. tree and animal facility), both in peridomestic areas. A total of 5,205 sandflies were collected, among which the species Lutzomyia longipalpis (99.85%; 5,197/5,205) was the most common, followed by Lutzomyia evandroi (0.13%; 07/5,205) and Lutzomyia whitmani (0.02%; 01/5,205). Specimens of L. longipalpis were collected throughout the study period and most of them were found near to the animal facilities. The findings from this research indicate that vectors for Leishmania infantum are present in the study area throughout the year, along with occurrences of vectors relating to Cutaneous Leishmaniasis (CL). Preventive vector control measures need to be implemented in Goiana to reduce the risk of infection for the human and animal populations.