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Aytekin Sahin G, Aykemat Y, Yildiz AT, Dishan A, Inanc N, Gonulalan Z. Total aflatoxin and ochratoxin A levels, dietary exposure and cancer risk assessment in dried fruits in Türkiye. Toxicon 2024; 237:107540. [PMID: 38042309 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2023.107540] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2023] [Revised: 11/22/2023] [Accepted: 11/26/2023] [Indexed: 12/04/2023]
Abstract
This study aimed to measure total aflatoxin (AF) (AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, and AFG2) and ochratoxin A (OTA) levels in dried fruit samples and to evaluate the potential dietary exposure and cancer risk to these mycotoxins in Kayseri/Türkiye. Dried fruit samples were collected between April-May 2021. A total of 11 dried grapes and apricot samples, 7 dried fig and plum samples were collected. Total aflatoxins and OTA in dried fruits were determined by ELISA method. Then, the margin of exposure (MOE) and cancer risk were calculated. Total AF was detected in dried fruit samples between 42.86%, and 100%. Between 18.18% and 57.14% of samples exceeded the European Commission (EC) limits for total AF. Moreover, OTA was detected in all samples. Between 71.43% and 100% of samples exceeded the EC limits for OTA. Cancer risk due to OTA exposure was higher than total AF and it was determined that OTA exposure could pose a risk for public health (MOE < 10,000). Although mycotoxin exposure seems to be low due to the low consumption of dried fruit in Türkiye, the risk of exposure and cancer may increase because of complying with the recommendations of the dietary guidelines. The findings provide new insights into exposure to total AF and OTA through the consumption of dried fruit.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gizem Aytekin Sahin
- Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, Faculty of Health Sciences, Nuh Naci Yazgan University, Kayseri, Turkey.
| | - Yusuf Aykemat
- Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, Faculty of Health Sciences, Nuh Naci Yazgan University, Kayseri, Turkey
| | - Aysegul Tugba Yildiz
- Department of Nursing, Faculty of Health Sciences, Nuh Naci Yazgan University, Kayseri, Turkey
| | - Adalet Dishan
- Department of Food Hygiene and Technology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Bozok University, Yozgat, Turkey
| | - Neriman Inanc
- Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, Faculty of Health Sciences, Nuh Naci Yazgan University, Kayseri, Turkey
| | - Zafer Gonulalan
- Department of Food Hygiene and Technology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Bozok University, Yozgat, Turkey; Department of Food Hygiene and Technology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Erciyes University, Kayseri, Turkey
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Pushparaj K, Meyyazhagan A, Pappuswamy M, Mousavi Khaneghah A, Liu W, Balasubramanian B. Occurrence, identification, and decontamination of potential mycotoxins in fruits and fruit by‐products. FOOD FRONTIERS 2023. [DOI: 10.1002/fft2.198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Karthika Pushparaj
- Department of Zoology, School of Biosciences Avinashilingam Institute for Home Science and Higher Education for Women Coimbatore Tamil Nadu India
| | - Arun Meyyazhagan
- Department of Life Science CHRIST (Deemed to be University) Bengaluru Karnataka India
| | - Manikantan Pappuswamy
- Department of Life Science CHRIST (Deemed to be University) Bengaluru Karnataka India
| | - Amin Mousavi Khaneghah
- Department of Fruit and Vegetable Product Technology Prof. Wacław Dąbrowski Institute of Agricultural and Food Biotechnology – State Research Institute Warsaw Poland
| | - Wen‐Chao Liu
- Department of Animal Science, College of Coastal Agricultural Sciences Guangdong Ocean University Zhanjiang China
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Galván AI, Hernández A, Córdoba MDG, Martín A, Serradilla MJ, López-Corrales M, Rodríguez A. Control of toxigenic Aspergillus spp. in dried figs by volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from antagonistic yeasts. Int J Food Microbiol 2022; 376:109772. [PMID: 35667262 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2022.109772] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2022] [Revised: 05/14/2022] [Accepted: 05/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus niger are fungi which can contaminate dried figs before and after harvest and consequently produce aflatoxins (AFs) and ochratoxin A (OTA). Many approaches have been applied to minimise the growth of these filamentous fungi, mainly involving the use of synthetic fungicides which are limited due to their negative impact on human health and the environment. In this context, biocontrol is a recent approach that needs to be explored. This study evaluated the potential of three volatile organic compounds (VOCs), octanoic acid (OA), 2-phenylethyl acetate (2PEA) and furfuryl acetate (FA), produced by Hanseniaspora uvarum and Hanseniaspora opuntiae yeasts on the growth, germination, gene expression and production of AFs and OTA by A. flavus M144 and A. niger M185 on dried fig-based agar and the incidence rates in dried figs. Two of the three VOCs evaluated (2PEA and FA) effectively controlled A. flavus M144 and A. niger M185 by using at least amounts of 50 μL (715 μL/L in the headspace) for FA and 100 μL (1430 μL/L in the headspace) for 2PEA in dried figs. One of the mode of actions of both compounds consists in early repressing the expression of genes involved in the biosynthesis of AFs (aflR) and OTA (pks) of A. flavus and A. niger, respectively. The results of this study support the application of 2PEA and FA at the early post-harvest stages of dried figs to control mycotoxin accumulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Isabel Galván
- Área de Fruticultura, Centro de Investigaciones Finca La Orden-Valdesequera (CICYTEX), Autovía Madrid-Lisboa, s/n, 06187 Guadajira, Spain
| | - Alejandro Hernández
- Nutrición y Bromatología, Escuela de Ingenierías Agrarias, Instituto Universitario de Recursos Agrarios (INURA), Universidad de Extremadura, Ctra. de Cáceres s/n, 06007 Badajoz, Spain.
| | - María de Guía Córdoba
- Nutrición y Bromatología, Escuela de Ingenierías Agrarias, Instituto Universitario de Recursos Agrarios (INURA), Universidad de Extremadura, Ctra. de Cáceres s/n, 06007 Badajoz, Spain
| | - Alberto Martín
- Nutrición y Bromatología, Escuela de Ingenierías Agrarias, Instituto Universitario de Recursos Agrarios (INURA), Universidad de Extremadura, Ctra. de Cáceres s/n, 06007 Badajoz, Spain
| | - Manuel Joaquín Serradilla
- Área de Postcosecha, Instituto Tecnológico Agroalimentario de Extremadura (INTAEX), Centro de Investigaciones Científicas y Tecnológicas de Extremadura (CICYTEX), Avenida Adolfo Suárez s/n, 06007 Badajoz, Spain
| | - Margarita López-Corrales
- Área de Fruticultura, Centro de Investigaciones Finca La Orden-Valdesequera (CICYTEX), Autovía Madrid-Lisboa, s/n, 06187 Guadajira, Spain
| | - Alicia Rodríguez
- Nutrición y Bromatología, Escuela de Ingenierías Agrarias, Instituto Universitario de Recursos Agrarios (INURA), Universidad de Extremadura, Ctra. de Cáceres s/n, 06007 Badajoz, Spain
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Evaluation of fungal hazards associated with dried fig processing. Int J Food Microbiol 2022; 365:109541. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2022.109541] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2021] [Revised: 12/20/2021] [Accepted: 01/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Kumar P, Mahato DK, Sharma B, Borah R, Haque S, Mahmud MC, Shah AK, Rawal D, Bora H, Bui S. Ochratoxins in food and feed: Occurrence and its impact on human health and management strategies. Toxicon 2020; 187:151-162. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2020.08.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2020] [Revised: 08/30/2020] [Accepted: 08/31/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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Sulyok M, Krska R, Senyuva H. Profiles of fungal metabolites including regulated mycotoxins in individual dried Turkish figs by LC-MS/MS. Mycotoxin Res 2020; 36:381-387. [PMID: 32671680 PMCID: PMC7536152 DOI: 10.1007/s12550-020-00398-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2020] [Revised: 05/27/2020] [Accepted: 06/24/2020] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Fungal metabolites including regulated mycotoxins were identified by a validated LC-MS/MS method in 180 individual Turkish dried figs from 2017 and 2018 harvests. Hand-selected dried figs were subjectively classified based on the extent of fluorescence. Forty-three fungal metabolites including eight EU-regulated mycotoxins were identified and quantified. Figs classified as being uncontaminated mostly did not contain aflatoxins above 1 μg/kg. Despite being "uncontaminated" from an aflatoxin perspective, kojic acid was present in significant quantities with a maximum level of 3750 mg/kg (0.375% w/w) and tenuazonic acid was also found (2 μg/kg to 298 mg/kg) in some figs. Notable in the screening of figs has been the presence of significant amounts of aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) in figs also containing significant levels of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), which is the first time that AFM1 has been reported as naturally occurring in dried figs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Sulyok
- Institute of Bioanalytics and Agro-Metabolomics, Department of Agrobiotechnology, IFA-Tulln, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna (BOKU), Konrad-Lorenz-Str. 20, 3430, Tulln, Austria.
| | - Rudolf Krska
- Institute of Bioanalytics and Agro-Metabolomics, Department of Agrobiotechnology, IFA-Tulln, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna (BOKU), Konrad-Lorenz-Str. 20, 3430, Tulln, Austria.,Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, Queens University Belfast, University Road, Belfast, Northern Ireland, BT7 1NN, UK
| | - Hamide Senyuva
- FoodLife International Ltd., ODTU Teknokent, 06800, Ankara, Turkey
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A preliminary assessment of dietary exposure of ochratoxin A in Central Anatolia Region, Turkey. Mycotoxin Res 2020; 36:327-337. [PMID: 32621108 DOI: 10.1007/s12550-020-00397-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2020] [Revised: 05/17/2020] [Accepted: 06/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to determine dietary exposure to ochratoxin A (OTA) in Turkish adults. In this study, 500 food samples (50 rice, 50 wheat bread, 50 pasta, 50 raisins, 50 dried figs, 50 pistachios, 50 hazelnuts, 50 almonds, 50 chilli, 25 coffee, and 25 cocoa) collected from Turkey were analysed with a high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) method. Moreover, a total of 370 analytical results (110 cereal-based snacks, 95 wine, 35 beer, and 130 chocolate) collected from our previous observations were also used in the evaluation of exposure estimates. OTA was found in 52% of cocoa, 42% of raisins, 40% of coffee, 34% of chilli, 14% of dried figs, 10% of pasta, 8% of pistachios, 6% of wheat bread, 4% of rice, and 4% of hazelnuts. The chronic dietary exposure to OTA for Turkish adults, using lower bound (LB) and upper bound (UB) concentrations, varied from 0.683 to 4.487 ng/kg body weight (b.w.) per week for mean estimate and from 3.976 to 5.760 ng/kg b.w. per week for the 95th percentile (P95) estimate. Cereals and cereal-based products made the largest contribution (75.3-85.7%) to OTA exposure. Both mean and P95 chronic exposure to OTA were greatly below the tolerable weekly intake of 120 ng/kg b.w. per week and thus not a health concern for Turkish adults.
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Iqbal SZ, Mehmood Z, Asi MR, Shahid M, Sehar M, Malik N. Co-occurrence of aflatoxins and ochratoxin A in nuts, dry fruits, and nuty products. J Food Saf 2018. [DOI: 10.1111/jfs.12462] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Shahzad Zafar Iqbal
- Department of Applied Chemistry; Government College University Faisalabad; Faisalabad Pakistan
- Department of Plant Biology; Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey; New Brunswick New Jersey
| | - Zehid Mehmood
- Department of Biochemistry; Government College University Faisalabad; Faisalabad Pakistan
| | | | - Misbah Shahid
- Department of Biochemistry; Government College University Faisalabad; Faisalabad Pakistan
| | - Mubasharah Sehar
- Department of Biochemistry; Government College University Faisalabad; Faisalabad Pakistan
| | - Noeen Malik
- Department of Radiology; New York State University; New York New York
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Elsayed MAE, Hatab MH, Elaroussi MA. Toxic Effects of Ochratoxin A on Calcium Metabolism during Chick Embryo Developmentand in Hatched Chicks. BRAZILIAN JOURNAL OF POULTRY SCIENCE 2017. [DOI: 10.1590/1806-9061-2016-0414] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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10
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Co-occurrence of aflatoxins and ochratoxin A in dried fruits in Iran: Dietary exposure risk assessment. Food Chem Toxicol 2017; 106:202-208. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2017.05.046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2017] [Revised: 05/20/2017] [Accepted: 05/22/2017] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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Abstract
In traditional raisin production process in Turkey, one of the major raisin producers in the world, grapes undergo an alkali treatment prior to drying. This procedure involves dipping grapes in a potassium carbonate solution for 10-15 seconds to remove the wax layer on the surface to accelerate the drying process. In this study, we aimed to investigate the effect of alkali treatment on ochratoxin A (OTA), an important risk factor for grapes and grape-derived products. First, the stability of the OTA was examined under variable pH (4-12), ion type (Na+, K+), ionic strength (0.1-10%) and temperature (4-60 °C). Then, Aspergillus ochraceus contaminated grapes were treated with an alkaline solution and a subsequent OTA analysis was performed through a high performance liquid chromatography-fluorescence detection. OTA started to decompose at pH values exceeding 10.0. The degradation followed a first order kinetics. Although both sodium carbonate and potassium carbonate solutions were at the same alkali pH and they both triggered the OTA degradation at increasing concentrations, potassium carbonate was more effective even at low concentrations. Elevated temperatures were also found to effect degradation. The degradation rate constant at 40 °C was approximately 5 times greater than the one at 25 °C. Furthermore, OTA levels dropped up to 50% in contaminated grapes after the alkali treatment. Our results confirmed that the amide bond of OTA rapidly hydrolysed to a non-toxic ochratoxin-alpha and phenylalanine under strong alkaline conditions. The results suggest that the alkaline pre-treatment unintentionally offers a great advantage to reduce OTA levels in raisins and it could be a viable approach for other dried fruits through the application of good manufacturing practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- S. Özcan
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology, Cambridge University, Tennis Court Road, Cambridge CB2 1QT, United Kingdom
- Department of Food Engineering, Hacettepe University, 06800 Beytepe, Ankara, Turkey
| | - V. Gökmen
- Department of Food Engineering, Hacettepe University, 06800 Beytepe, Ankara, Turkey
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Smith MC, Madec S, Coton E, Hymery N. Natural Co-Occurrence of Mycotoxins in Foods and Feeds and Their in vitro Combined Toxicological Effects. Toxins (Basel) 2016; 8:94. [PMID: 27023609 PMCID: PMC4848621 DOI: 10.3390/toxins8040094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 325] [Impact Index Per Article: 40.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2016] [Revised: 03/18/2016] [Accepted: 03/21/2016] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Some foods and feeds are often contaminated by numerous mycotoxins, but most studies have focused on the occurrence and toxicology of a single mycotoxin. Regulations throughout the world do not consider the combined effects of mycotoxins. However, several surveys have reported the natural co-occurrence of mycotoxins from all over the world. Most of the published data has concerned the major mycotoxins aflatoxins (AFs), ochratoxin A (OTA), zearalenone (ZEA), fumonisins (FUM) and trichothecenes (TCTs), especially deoxynivalenol (DON). Concerning cereals and derived cereal product samples, among the 127 mycotoxin combinations described in the literature, AFs+FUM, DON+ZEA, AFs+OTA, and FUM+ZEA are the most observed. However, only a few studies specified the number of co-occurring mycotoxins with the percentage of the co-contaminated samples, as well as the main combinations found. Studies of mycotoxin combination toxicity showed antagonist, additive or synergic effects depending on the tested species, cell model or mixture, and were not necessarily time- or dose-dependent. This review summarizes the findings on mycotoxins and their co-occurrence in various foods and feeds from all over the world as well as in vitro experimental data on their combined toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie-Caroline Smith
- Université de Brest, EA 3882 Laboratoire Universitaire de Biodiversité et d'Ecologie Microbienne, ESIAB, Technopôle Brest-Iroise, 29280 Plouzané, France.
| | - Stéphanie Madec
- Université de Brest, EA 3882 Laboratoire Universitaire de Biodiversité et d'Ecologie Microbienne, ESIAB, Technopôle Brest-Iroise, 29280 Plouzané, France.
| | - Emmanuel Coton
- Université de Brest, EA 3882 Laboratoire Universitaire de Biodiversité et d'Ecologie Microbienne, ESIAB, Technopôle Brest-Iroise, 29280 Plouzané, France.
| | - Nolwenn Hymery
- Université de Brest, EA 3882 Laboratoire Universitaire de Biodiversité et d'Ecologie Microbienne, ESIAB, Technopôle Brest-Iroise, 29280 Plouzané, France.
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Clarke R, Connolly L, Frizzell C, Elliott CT. Cytotoxic assessment of the regulated, co-existing mycotoxins aflatoxin B1, fumonisin B1 and ochratoxin, in single, binary and tertiary mixtures. Toxicon 2014; 90:70-81. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2014.07.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2014] [Revised: 07/28/2014] [Accepted: 07/30/2014] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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Ashiq S, Hussain M, Ahmad B. Natural occurrence of mycotoxins in medicinal plants: a review. Fungal Genet Biol 2014; 66:1-10. [PMID: 24594211 DOI: 10.1016/j.fgb.2014.02.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2013] [Revised: 02/10/2014] [Accepted: 02/24/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Medicinal plants are widely used as home remedies and raw materials for the pharmaceutical industries. Herbal remedies are used in the prevention, treatment and cure of disorders and diseases since ancient times. However, use of medicinal herbs may not meet the requirements of quality, safety and efficacy. During harvesting, handling, storage and distribution, medicinal plants are subjected to contamination by various fungi, which may be responsible for spoilage and production of mycotoxins. The increasing consumption of medicinal plants has made their use a public health problem due to the lack of effective surveillance of the use, efficacy, toxicity and quality of these natural products. The increase in use of medicinal plants may lead to an increase in the intake of mycotoxins therefore contamination of medicinal plants with mycotoxins can contribute to adverse human health problems and therefore represents a special hazard. Numerous natural occurrences of mycotoxins in medicinal plants and traditional herbal medicines have been reported from various countries including Spain, China, Germany, India, Turkey and from Middle East as well. This review discusses the important mycotoxins and their natural occurrences in medicinal plants and their products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samina Ashiq
- Centre of Biotechnology & Microbiology, University of Peshawar, Pakistan.
| | - Mubbashir Hussain
- Department of Microbiology, Kohat University of Science and Technology, 26000, Pakistan.
| | - Bashir Ahmad
- Centre of Biotechnology & Microbiology, University of Peshawar, Pakistan.
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Bazin I, Faucet-Marquis V, Monje MC, El Khoury M, Marty JL, Pfohl-Leszkowicz A. Impact of pH on the stability and the cross-reactivity of ochratoxin A and citrinin. Toxins (Basel) 2013; 5:2324-40. [PMID: 24287570 PMCID: PMC3873688 DOI: 10.3390/toxins5122324] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2013] [Revised: 11/21/2013] [Accepted: 11/22/2013] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by several fungi contaminating crops. In several countries, the maximum permitted levels of mycotoxins are found in foodstuffs and feedstuffs. The common strategy of mycotoxin analysis involves extraction, clean-up and quantification by chromatography. In this paper, we analyzed the reasons of underestimation of ochratoxin A (OTA) content in wine, and overestimation of OTA in wheat, depending on the pH of the clean-up step and the simultaneous presence of citrinin (CIT). We demonstrated that the increase of pH by adding polyethylene glycol (PEG) to wine led to an underestimation of OTA by conversion of OTA into open ring ochratoxin A OP-OA. In comparing three methods of extraction and clean-up for the determination of OTA and CIT in wheat--(i) an inter-laboratory validated method for OTA in cereals using immunoaffinity column clean-up (IAC) and extraction by acetonitrile/water; (ii) a validated method using IAC and extraction with 1% bicarbonate Na; and (iii) an in-house validated method based on acid liquid/liquid extraction--we observed an overestimation of OTA after immunoaffinity clean-up when CIT is also present in the sample, whereas an underestimation was observed when OTA was alone. Under neutral and alkaline conditions, CIT was partially recognized by OTA antibodies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ingrid Bazin
- Ecole des mines d’Ales, 6 av de Clavieres, 30100 Ales Cedex, France; E-Mail:
| | - Virginie Faucet-Marquis
- Laboratory Chemical Engineering, Department Bioprocess & Microbial System, University of Toulouse, UMR CNRS/INPT/UPS 5503, 1 Avenue Agrobiopole, 31320 Auzeville-Tolosane, France; E-Mails: (V.F.-M.); (M.-C.M.)
- Anabiotox 16 allée Montcalm, 31500 Ramonville, France
| | - Marie-Carmen Monje
- Laboratory Chemical Engineering, Department Bioprocess & Microbial System, University of Toulouse, UMR CNRS/INPT/UPS 5503, 1 Avenue Agrobiopole, 31320 Auzeville-Tolosane, France; E-Mails: (V.F.-M.); (M.-C.M.)
| | - Micheline El Khoury
- Ecole des mines d’Ales, 6 av de Clavieres, 30100 Ales Cedex, France; E-Mail:
| | - Jean-Louis Marty
- Laboratory IMAGES, University of Perpignan, 52 Avenue Paul Alduy, 66860 Perpignan Cedex, France; E-Mail:
| | - Annie Pfohl-Leszkowicz
- Laboratory Chemical Engineering, Department Bioprocess & Microbial System, University of Toulouse, UMR CNRS/INPT/UPS 5503, 1 Avenue Agrobiopole, 31320 Auzeville-Tolosane, France; E-Mails: (V.F.-M.); (M.-C.M.)
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16
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Li P, Zhang Z, Hu X, Zhang Q. Advanced hyphenated chromatographic-mass spectrometry in mycotoxin determination: current status and prospects. MASS SPECTROMETRY REVIEWS 2013; 32:420-452. [PMID: 23804155 DOI: 10.1002/mas.21377] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2012] [Accepted: 01/04/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Mass spectrometric techniques are essential for advanced research in food safety and environmental monitoring. These fields are important for securing the health of humans and animals, and for ensuring environmental security. Mycotoxins, toxic secondary metabolites of filamentous fungi, are major contaminants of agricultural products, food and feed, biological samples, and the environment as a whole. Mycotoxins can cause cancers, nephritic and hepatic diseases, various hemorrhagic syndromes, and immune and neurological disorders. Mycotoxin-contaminated food and feed can provoke trade conflicts, resulting in massive economic losses. Risk assessment of mycotoxin contamination for humans and animals generally depends on clear identification and reliable quantitation in diversified matrices. Pioneering work on mycotoxin quantitation using mass spectrometry (MS) was performed in the early 1970s. Now, unambiguous confirmation and quantitation of mycotoxins can be readily achieved with a variety hyphenated techniques that combine chromatographic separation with MS, including liquid chromatography (LC) or gas chromatography (GC). With the advent of atmospheric pressure ionization, LC-MS has become a routine technique. Recently, the co-occurrence of multiple mycotoxins in the same sample has drawn an increasing amount of attention. Thus, modern analyses must be able to detect and quantitate multiple mycotoxins in a single run. Improvements in tandem MS techniques have been made to achieve this purpose. This review describes the advanced research that has been done regarding mycotoxin determination using hyphenated chromatographic-MS techniques, but is not a full-circle survey of all the literature published on this topic. The present work provides an overview of the various hyphenated chromatographic-MS-based strategies that have been applied to mycotoxin analysis, with a focus on recent developments. The use of chromatographic-MS to measure levels of mycotoxins, including aflatoxins, ochratoxins, patulin, trichothecenes, zearalenone, and fumonisins, is discussed in detail. Both free and masked mycotoxins are included in this review due to different methods of sample preparation. Techniques are described in terms of sample preparation, internal standards, LC/ultra performance LC (UPLC) optimization, and applications and survey. Several future hyphenated MS techniques are discussed as well, including multidimensional chromatography-MS, capillary electrophoresis-MS, and surface plasmon resonance array-MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peiwu Li
- Oil Crops Research Institute of the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Wuhan 430062, P.R. China; Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Oil Crops, Ministry of Agriculture, Wuhan 430062, P.R. China; Key Laboratory of Detection for Mycotoxins, Ministry of Agriculture, Wuhan 430062, P.R. China; Laboratory of Risk Assessment for Oilseeds Products (Wuhan), Ministry of Agriculture, Wuhan 430062, P.R. China; Quality Inspection and Test Center for Oilseeds Products, Ministry of Agriculture, Wuhan 430062, P.R. China
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Evtugyn G, Porfireva A, Sitdikov R, Evtugyn V, Stoikov I, Antipin I, Hianik T. Electrochemical Aptasensor for the Determination of Ochratoxin A at the Au Electrode Modified with Ag Nanoparticles Decorated with Macrocyclic Ligand. ELECTROANAL 2013. [DOI: 10.1002/elan.201300164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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Ochratoxin A and aflatoxins in dried vine fruits from the Iranian market. Mycotoxin Res 2012; 28:237-42. [DOI: 10.1007/s12550-012-0145-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2012] [Revised: 09/09/2012] [Accepted: 09/10/2012] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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20
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Pavón MÁ, González I, Martín R, García T. Competitive direct ELISA based on a monoclonal antibody for detection of Ochratoxin A in dried fig samples. FOOD AGR IMMUNOL 2012. [DOI: 10.1080/09540105.2011.604769] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022] Open
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21
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Janati SSF, Beheshti HR, Asadi M, Mihanparast S, Feizy J. Preliminary survey of aflatoxins and ochratoxin a in dried fruits from Iran. BULLETIN OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION AND TOXICOLOGY 2012; 88:391-395. [PMID: 22109516 DOI: 10.1007/s00128-011-0477-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2011] [Accepted: 11/15/2011] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Forty five dried fruits, 30 dried apricots and 15 prunes were tested for aflatoxins and ochratoxin A contamination utilizing immunoaffinity column clean up and high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with fluorescence detection. 30% and 3.33% of examined apricot samples and 13.33% and 20% of examined prunes samples contained aflatoxin B(1) and ochratoxin A more than 0.2 ng g(-1). The average recoveries were found to be 91.1% and 98.5% for aflatoxin B(1) and ochratoxin A, respectively, while the detection limit was 0.2 ng g(-1) for both mycotoxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Somayeh Sadat Fakoor Janati
- Testa Quality Control Laboratory, North-East Food Industrial Technology and Biotechnology Park, P. O. Box 134-157/91895, Mashhad, Iran
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22
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Heperkan D, Güler FK, Oktay H. Mycoflora and natural occurrence of aflatoxin, cyclopiazonic acid, fumonisin and ochratoxin A in dried figs. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2012; 29:277-86. [DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2011.597037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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23
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Pavón MÁ, González I, de la Cruz S, Martín R, Lacarra TG. The use of high-performance liquid chromatography to detect ochratoxin A in dried figs from the Spanish market. JOURNAL OF THE SCIENCE OF FOOD AND AGRICULTURE 2012; 92:74-77. [PMID: 21744361 DOI: 10.1002/jsfa.4543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2010] [Revised: 05/10/2011] [Accepted: 06/02/2011] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Detection and quantification of ochratoxin A (OTA) in dried fig samples purchased in Spain has been carried out using high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection after extraction with methanol and sodium bicarbonate, and clean-up by using an immunoaffinity column. RESULTS The detection limit of the method was 0.06 ng g(-1), and the limit of quantification 0.18 ng g(-1) . OTA was detected in 31 (88.6%) out of 35 samples of dried figs analysed, with concentrations that ranged from < 0.1 to 277 ng g(-1). However, only three samples contained OTA concentrations above the tolerable level set by European Commission regulations for dried vine fruits (10 ng g(-1)). CONCLUSION The results of this survey show the value of monitoring OTA in dried figs especially if they are home grown.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miguel Ángel Pavón
- Departamento de Nutrición, Bromatología y Tecnología de Alimentos. Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain
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Afsah-Hejri L, Jinap S, Mirhosseini H. Ochratoxin A quantification: Newly developed HPLC conditions. Food Control 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2011.06.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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25
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Abrunhosa L, Paterson RRM, Venâncio A. Biodegradation of ochratoxin a for food and feed decontamination. Toxins (Basel) 2010; 2:1078-99. [PMID: 22069627 PMCID: PMC3153227 DOI: 10.3390/toxins2051078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 118] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2010] [Revised: 04/22/2010] [Accepted: 05/12/2010] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Ochratoxin A (OTA) is one of the most important mycotoxins that is found in food and feed products. It has proven toxic properties, being primarily known for its nephrotoxicity and carcinogenicity to certain animal species. OTA is produced by several species of Aspergillus and Penicillium that can be found in a wide variety of agricultural products, which makes the presence of OTA in these products common. Many countries have statutory limits for OTA, and concentrations need to be reduced to as low as technologically possible in food and feed. The most important measures to be taken to control OTA are preventive in order to avoid fungal growth and OTA production. However, these measures are difficult to implement in all cases with the consequence of OTA remaining in agricultural commodities. Remediation processes are often used to eliminate, reduce or avoid the toxic effects of OTA. Biological methods have been considered increasingly as an alternative to physical and chemical treatments. However, examples of practical applications are infrequent. This review will focus on the (i) known microorganisms and enzymes that are able to biodegrade OTA; (ii) mode of action of biodegradation and (iii) current applications. A critical discussion about the technical applicability of these strategies is presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luís Abrunhosa
- IBB, Institute for Biotechnology, Bioengineering, Centro de Engenharia Biológica, Universidade do Minho, Campus de Gualtar, Braga, Portugal.
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el Khoury A, Atoui A. Ochratoxin a: general overview and actual molecular status. Toxins (Basel) 2010; 2:461-93. [PMID: 22069596 PMCID: PMC3153212 DOI: 10.3390/toxins2040461] [Citation(s) in RCA: 267] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2010] [Revised: 03/05/2010] [Accepted: 03/08/2010] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a mycotoxin produced by several species of Aspergillus and Penicillium fungi that structurally consists of a para-chlorophenolic group containing a dihydroisocoumarin moiety that is amide-linked to L-phenylalanine. OTA is detected worldwide in various food and feed sources. Studies show that this molecule can have several toxicological effects such as nephrotoxic, hepatotoxic, neurotoxic, teratogenic and immunotoxic. A role in the etiology of Balkan endemic nephropathy and its association to urinary tract tumors has been also proved. In this review, we will explore the general aspect of OTA: physico-chemical properties, toxicological profile, OTA producing fungi, contaminated food, regulation, legislation and analytical methods. Due to lack of sufficient information related to the molecular background, this paper will discuss in detail the recent advances in molecular biology of OTA biosynthesis, based on information and on new data about identification and characterization of ochratoxin biosynthetic genes in both Penicillium and Aspergillus species. This review will also cover the development of the molecular methods for the detection and quantification of OTA producing fungi in various foodstuffs.
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Affiliation(s)
- André el Khoury
- Centre d’analyses et de recherches, Faculté des Sciences, Université Saint-Joseph, Beyrouth, Lebanon
| | - Ali Atoui
- Lebanese Atomic Energy Commission-CNRS, P.O. Box 11-8281, Riad El Solh, 1107 2260 Beirut, Lebanon
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28
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Mycotoxins in fruits and their processed products: Analysis, occurrence and health implications. J Adv Res 2010. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jare.2010.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 125] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
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29
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Rahmani A, Jinap S, Soleimany F. Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis of Mycotoxins. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2009; 8:202-251. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1541-4337.2009.00079.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 151] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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Bircan C. Incidence of ochratoxin A in dried fruits and co-occurrence with aflatoxins in dried figs. Food Chem Toxicol 2009; 47:1996-2001. [PMID: 19450651 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2009.05.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2009] [Revised: 04/21/2009] [Accepted: 05/13/2009] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Ninety eight dried figs, 53 sultanas and 20 dried apricots destined for export from Turkey to the European Union were tested for ochratoxin A (OTA) contamination utilizing immunoaffinity column clean-up and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). While only 2 (4%) of the sultanas exceeded the 10 ng g(-1) maximum limit set by the EU, 28 (53%) of 53 sultana samples contained detectable levels of OTA, in the range of 0.51-58.04 ng g(-1). Eighteen of 98 (18%) dried figs contained detectable levels of OTA, in the range of 0.87-24.37 ng g(-1). Only one of the 20 dried apricots was contaminated, with 0.97 ng g(-1) OTA. Dried figs analyzed for OTA were also tested for aflatoxin contamination to determine the co-occurrence of both toxins. Seven samples were confirmed aflatoxin positive, in the range of 0.23-4.28 ng g(-1), and only 2 samples contained both toxins, with a maximum concentration of 24.37 ng g(-1)for OTA and 1.02 ng g(-1) for aflatoxin B(1). The average recovery and relative standard deviation (RSD) obtained from dried fruits spiked with OTA ranged from 80.5% to 91.5% and 0.99-5%, respectively. The average recovery and relative standard deviation (RSD) obtained from dried figs spiked with aflatoxin ranged from 88.78% to 93.53% and 2.54-7.25%, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cavit Bircan
- Adnan Menderes University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Food Engineering, 09100 Aydin, Turkey.
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31
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Trucksess MW, Scott PM. Mycotoxins in botanicals and dried fruits: a review. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2008; 25:181-92. [PMID: 18286408 DOI: 10.1080/02652030701567459] [Citation(s) in RCA: 113] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Botanicals are used in many countries for medicinal and general health-promoting purposes. Numerous natural occurrences of mycotoxins in botanicals and dried fruits have been reported. Aflatoxins or ochratoxin A (OTA) have been found in botanicals such as ginseng, ginger, liquorice, turmeric, and kava-kava in the USA, Spain, Argentina, India, and some other countries, while fumonisins have been found in medicinal wild plants in South Africa and in herbal tea and medicinal plants in Turkey. Zearalenone was identified in ginseng root. Dried fruits can be contaminated with aflatoxins, OTA, kojic acid, and, occasionally, with patulin or zearalenone. One main area of concern is aflatoxins in dried figs; bright greenish yellow fluorescence under ultraviolet light is associated with aflatoxin contamination. OTA in dried vine fruits (raisins, sultanas, and currants) is another concern. There are also reports of aflatoxins in raisins and OTA in dried figs, apricots, dried plums (prunes), dates, and quince. Maximum permitted levels in the European Union include 4 microg kg(-1) for total aflatoxins in dried fruit intended for direct consumption and 10 microg kg(-1) for OTA in dried vine fruit. This review discusses the occurrence of mycotoxins in botanicals and dried fruits and analytical issues such as sampling, sample preparation, and methods for analysis. Fungal contamination of these products, the influence of sorting, storage, and processing, and prevention are also considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- M W Trucksess
- Food and Drug Administration, College Park, MD 20740, USA.
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33
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Senyuva HZ, Gilbert J. Identification of fumonisin B2, HT-2 toxin, patulin, and zearalenone in dried figs by liquid chromatography-time-of-flight mass spectrometry and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. J Food Prot 2008; 71:1500-4. [PMID: 18680955 DOI: 10.4315/0362-028x-71.7.1500] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Dried figs from Turkey that were visibly moldy (or fluorescent under UV light) and thus rejected as unsuitable for human food were screened for the presence of fungal metabolites. Crude solvent extracts from individual figs were directly analyzed by liquid chromatography combined with time-of-flight mass spectrometry to generate accurate mass data for all detectable components. A comparison of these data with a metabolite database indicated the presence of fumonisins B2 and B4, patulin, HT-2 toxin, and zearalenone among various other metabolites. Portions of the same figs were reextracted and then analyzed by conventional liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. On the basis of coincident retention times and by matching selected ion monitoring for coincident ions with that of authentic standards, the identification of fumonisin B2, HT-2 toxin, patulin, and zearalenone was confirmed.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Z Senyuva
- Ankara Test and Analysis Laboratory, Scientific and Technical Research Council of Turkey, Ankara 06330, Turkey.
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34
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Natural occurrence of ochratoxin A in dried figs. Anal Chim Acta 2008; 617:32-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2008.01.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2007] [Revised: 12/24/2007] [Accepted: 01/05/2008] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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35
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Şenyuva H, Gilbert J, Samson R, Özcan S, Öztürkoğlu Ş, Önal D. Occurrence of fungi and their mycotoxins in individual Turkish dried figs. WORLD MYCOTOXIN J 2008. [DOI: 10.3920/wmj2008.x009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Fifty individual figs which had been rejected as potentially contaminated by sorting under UV light were separately analysed to identify the presence of fungi and their mycotoxins. Aflatoxin B1 was found in 49 samples with levels ranging from 0.7 to 222 ng g-1, with 40 individual figs containing more than 2 ng g-1, indicating the efficacy of the UV screening process in identifying contaminated fruit. Ochratoxin A (OTA) was found in 32 of the figs at levels from 0.4 to 1710 ng g-1, with 50% of the samples containing levels above 1 ng g-1. There was no evident correlation between levels of aflatoxin B1 and levels of OTA. Twenty fungal species were isolated from the outer and inner surfaces of the figs, some of which were subsequently cultured on YES and PDB and the media analysed for the presence of aflatoxin B1 and OTA to establish their toxigenicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- H. Şenyuva
- Ankara Test and Analysis Laboratory, Scientific and Technical Research Council of Turkey, Ankara 06330, Turkey
| | - J. Gilbert
- Central Science Laboratory, Sand Hutton, York, YO41 1LZ, United Kingdom
| | - R. Samson
- Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures, 3508 AD Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - S. Özcan
- Ankara Test and Analysis Laboratory, Scientific and Technical Research Council of Turkey, Ankara 06330, Turkey
| | - Ş. Öztürkoğlu
- Ankara Test and Analysis Laboratory, Scientific and Technical Research Council of Turkey, Ankara 06330, Turkey
| | - D. Önal
- Department of Biology, Gazi University, 06530 Besevler, Ankara, Turkey
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36
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37
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GILBERT J, SENYUVA H. Fungal and mycotoxin contamination of dried figs-a review. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008. [DOI: 10.2520/myco.58.73] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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38
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Zinedine A, Soriano JM, Juan C, Mojemmi B, Moltó JC, Bouklouze A, Cherrah Y, Idrissi L, El Aouad R, Mañes J. Incidence of ochratoxin A in rice and dried fruits from Rabat and Salé area, Morocco. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2007; 24:285-91. [PMID: 17364931 DOI: 10.1080/02652030600967230] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
One hundred samples of dried fruits (20 dried raisins, 20 walnuts, 20 peanuts, 20 dried figs and 20 pistachios) and 20 samples of rice purchased from retail shops in the Rabat and Salé area in Morocco were analysed for ochratoxin A (OTA) by immunoaffinity clean-up (IAC) and liquid chromatography (LC) with fluorescence detection. The limit of quantification (LOQ) (S/N = 10:1) of OTA was 0.02 ng g(-1) in rice, 0.03 ng g(-1) in pistachio, peanut and walnut, and 0.03 ng g(-1) in dried raisins and dried figs. The incidences of occurrence of OTA in dried raisins, walnuts, peanuts, dried figs and rice were 30, 35, 25, 65 and 90%, respectively. Analytical results showed that pistachio samples contained no detectable OTA, but concentrations ranged from 0.02 +/- 0.01 to 32.4 +/- 2.10 ng g(-1) in rice, from 0.10 +/- 0.05 to 2.36 +/- 0.75 in peanut, from 0.03 +/- 0.01 to 1.42 +/- 0.45 in dried figs, from 0.05 +/- 0.02 to 4.95 +/- 0.02 in dried raisins, and from 0.04 +/- 0.01 to 0.23 +/- 0.05 in walnuts. The results also showed that 15% of the total number of rice samples analysed exceeded the 2002 regulatory limit set by European Union regulations for cereals. This is the first report on the occurrence of OTA in dried fruits and rice available in Morocco.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Zinedine
- Laboratory of Food Toxicology, National Institute of Health (INH), 27 Avenue Ibn Batouta, PO Box 769 Agdal, Rabat, Morocco
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Senyuva HZ, Gilbert J, Ulken U. Aflatoxins in Turkish dried figs intended for export to the European Union. J Food Prot 2007; 70:1029-32. [PMID: 17477280 DOI: 10.4315/0362-028x-70.4.1029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Dried figs for export from Turkey from crop years 2003 through 2006 were tested for aflatoxin B1 and total aflatoxins. For export to the European Union, consignments of 0.5 to 10 tonnes of dried figs were sampled according to European Commission regulations, and high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) was used to determine concentrations of aflatoxins Bl, B2, G1, and G2. For each consignment of dried figs, a 30-kg sample (comprising 100 subsamples) was divided into three 10-kg subsamples, which were separately blended and analyzed with HPLC. This monitoring effort was conducted for figs from 2003, 2004, 2005, and up to June 2006, for a total of 10,396 30-kg samples (28,489 analyses). The incidence of contamination with aflatoxin B1 at higher than 2 ng/g was on average 0.6, 2.0, 4.0, and 2.4% for 2003, 2004, 2005, and up to June 2006, respectively, whereas contamination with total aflatoxins at higher than 4 ng/g was 2.6, 3.0, 5.1, and 2.7%. There was significant variability in contamination between replicate 1-kg samples, indicating small numbers of individual contaminated figs were probably responsible. There were also substantial differences in the relative proportions of aflatoxins B1, B2, G1, and G2 among samples, suggesting different contributing fungal sources.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Z Senyuva
- Ankara Test and Analysis Laboratory, Scientific and Technical Research Council of Turkey, Ankara 06330, Turkey.
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40
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Opinion of the Scientific Panel on contaminants in the food chain [CONTAM] related to ochratoxin A in food. EFSA J 2006. [DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2006.365] [Citation(s) in RCA: 133] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
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Abstract
Dried figs of three different categories, palatable, fluorescent, and cull, were investigated for their contents of aflatoxins (B(1), B(2), G(1) and G(2)), patulin, and ergosterol. Samples were obtained from four fig processing plants located in a major fig producing area in the Aegean Region in Turkey. Affinity column clean-up methods were employed for aflatoxins. All aflatoxins, patulin, and ergosterol were determined using high performance liquid chromatography. Palatable figs contaminated with trace amounts of aflatoxins, patulin, and ergosterol, so they posed no risk for the consumer when national and/or international regulatory limits were considered. Fluorescent figs were contaminated with high (117.9-471.9 ppb) aflatoxin levels and cull figs with high patulin (39.3-151.6 ppb) and ergosterol (4.5-18 ppm) levels. The total aflatoxins content was significantly correlated with the patulin content (r(2) = 0.813, p < 0.002) and the ergosterol content (r(2) = 0.920, p < 0.002) only in fluorescent figs. However there was no significant correlation between patulin and ergosterol contents of fluorescent figs. Furthermore, there were no significant correlations between the contents of any two of the three substances in cull figs. This is the first report on the presence of patulin and its co-occurrence with aflatoxin in dried figs.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Karaca
- Department of Food Engineering, Ankara University, Faculty of Engineering, Diskapi, Ankara, Turkey.
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42
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Timperio AM, Magro P, Chilosi G, Zolla L. Assay of ochratoxin A in grape by high-pressure liquid chromatography coupled on line with an ESI–mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2006; 832:127-33. [PMID: 16442353 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2006.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2005] [Revised: 11/12/2005] [Accepted: 01/08/2006] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
In this paper, we propose a method for detection of ochratoxin A (OTA) in grapes by using nano-reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization-mass spectrometry (nano-RP-HPLC-ESI-MS). The method is rapid, highly sensitive and reproducible. OTA is extracted preferably from the entire acinus, rather than must; using chloroform at long incubation time period, lyophilized, resolubilized in acetonitrile (AcCN) and injected onto a reversed phase capillary or analytical column. Capillary columns are the method of choice because it requires a reduced amount of injected sample and consequently the chloroform necessary for OTA extraction, which is a toxic agent. This method gives a detection limit of femtog/ml, without resorting to an immunoaffinity clean-up or concentration, which makes it by far superior to any other method reported. Moreover, by using MS as a detection method it is possible, in the case of a complex matrix, to measure its molecular mass and to confirm the presence of OTA by MS-MS, which cannot be done by fluorescent detection. The method has a high sample extraction throughput (24/h) and has adequate precision (between batch C.V. <8%) and sensitivity (limit of detection (LOD)=1 pg/g; limits of quantification (LOQ)=2 pg/g) for OTA measured.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Maria Timperio
- Department of Environmental Sciences, University of Tuscia, 01100 Viterbo, Italy
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