Role of Glutathione Redox System on the T-2 Toxin Tolerance of Pheasant (Phasianus colchicus)

Pathological consequences, metabolism and toxic effects of trichothecene T-2 toxin in poultry

Contamination of feed with mycotoxins has become a severe issue worldwide. Among the most prevalent trichothecene mycotoxins, T-2 toxin is of particular importance for livestock production, including poultry posing a significant threat to animal health and productivity. This review article aims to comprehensively analyze the pathological consequences, metabolism, and toxic effects of T-2 toxin in poultry. Trichothecene mycotoxins, primarily produced by Fusarium species, are notorious for their potent toxicity. T-2 toxin exhibits a broad spectrum of negative effects on poultry species, leading to substantial economic losses as well as concerns about animal welfare and food safety in modern agriculture. T-2 toxin exposure easily results in negative pathological consequences in the gastrointestinal tract, as well as in parenchymal tissues like the liver (as the key organ for its metabolism), kidneys, or reproductive organs. In addition, it also intensely damages immune system-related tissues such as the spleen, the bursa of Fabricius, or the thymus causing immunosuppression and increasing the susceptibility of the animals to infectious diseases, as well as making immunization programs less effective. The toxin also damages cellular processes on the transcriptional and translational levels and induces apoptosis through the activation of numerous cellular signaling cascades. Furthermore, according to recent studies, besides the direct effects on the abovementioned processes, T-2 toxin induces the production of reactive molecules and free radicals resulting in oxidative distress and concomitantly occurring cellular damage. In conclusion, this review article provides a complex and detailed overview of the metabolism, pathological consequences, mechanism of action as well as the immunomodulatory and oxidative stress-related effects of T-2 toxin. Understanding these effects in poultry is crucial for developing strategies to mitigate the impact of the T-2 toxin on avian health and food safety in the future.

Mycotoxins on edible insects: Should we be worried?

Edible insects are a solid alternative to meet the growing demand for animal protein. However, there are doubts regarding the safety of insect consumption. Mycotoxins are substances of concern for food safety, as they may cause harmful effects on the human organism and accumulate in the tissues of some animals. This study focuses on the characteristics of the main mycotoxins, the mitigation of human consumption of contaminated insects, and the effects of mycotoxins on insect metabolism. To date, studies reported the interaction of the mycotoxins aflatoxin B1, ochratoxin A, zearalenone, deoxynivalenol, fumonisin B1, and T-2, isolated or combined, in three insect species from Coleoptera and one from Diptera order. The use of rearing substrates with low mycotoxin contamination did not reduce the survival and development of insects. Fasting practices and replacing contaminated substrate with a decontaminated one decreased the concentration of mycotoxins in insects. There is no evidence that mycotoxins accumulate in the tissues of the insects' larvae. Coleoptera species showed high excretion capacity, while Hermetia illucens had a lower excretion capacity of ochratoxin A, zearalenone, and deoxynivalenol. Thus, a substrate with low mycotoxin contamination could be used for raising edible insects, particularly from the Coleoptera order.

T-2 toxin metabolism and its hepatotoxicity: New insights on the molecular mechanism and detoxification

T-2 toxin, a type A trichothecene, is a secondary metabolite produced by Fusarium poae, Fusarium sporotrichioides, and Fusarium tricinctum. As the most toxic trichothecenes, T-2 toxin causes severe damage to multiple organs, especially to liver. However, the contamination of T-2 toxin covers a wide range of plants, including nuts, grains, fruits and herbs globally. And due to chemical stability of T-2 toxin, it is difficult to be completely removed from the food and feeds, which poses a great threat to human and animal health. Liver is the major detoxifying organ which also makes it the main target of T-2 toxin. After being absorbed by intestine, the first pass effect will reduce the level of T-2 toxin in blood indicating that liver is the main metabolic site of T-2 toxin in vivo. In this review, updated researches on the hepatotoxicity of T-2 toxin were summarized. The metabolic characteristic of T-2 toxin in vivo was introduced. The main hepatotoxic mechanisms of T-2 toxin are oxidative stress, mitochondrial damage, deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) methylation, autophagy and apoptosis. Recent research of the main hepatotoxic mechanisms of T-2 toxin and the interactions between these mechanisms were summarized. The remission of the hepatotoxicity induced by T-2 toxin was also studied in this review followed by new findings on the detoxification of hepatotoxicity induced by T-2 toxin. The review aimed to offer a comprehensive view and proposes new perspectives in the field of hepatotoxicity induced by T-2 toxin.

A biochemical, theoretical and immunohistochemical study comparing the therapeutic efficacy of curcumin and taurine on T-2 toxin induced hepatotoxicity in rats

Introduction: Foodborne trichothecene T-2 Toxin, is a highly toxic metabolite produced by Fusarium species contaminating animal and human food, causing multiple organ failure and health hazards. T-2 toxins induce hepatotoxicity via oxidative stress causing hepatocytes cytotoxicity and genotoxicity. In this study, curcumin and taurine were investigated and compared as antioxidants against T-2-provoked hepatotoxicity. Methods: Wistar rats were administrated T-2 toxin sublethal oral dose (0.1 mg/kg) for 2 months, followed by curcumin (80 mg/kg) and taurine (50 mg/kg) for 3 weeks. Biochemical assessment of liver enzymes, lipid profiles, thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARs), AFU, TNF-α, total glutathione, molecular docking, histological and immunohistochemical markers for anti-transforming growth factor-β1 (TGFβ1), double-strand DNA damage (H2AX), regeneration (KI67) and apoptosis (Active caspase3) were done. Results and Discussion: Compared to T-2 toxin, curcumin and taurine treatment significantly ameliorated hepatoxicity as; hemoglobin, hematocrit and glutathione, hepatic glycogen, and KI-67 immune-reactive hepatocytes were significantly increased. Although, liver enzymes, inflammation, fibrosis, TGFβ1 immunoexpressing and H2AX and active caspase 3 positive hepatocytes were significantly decreased. Noteworthy, curcumin's therapeutic effect was superior to taurine by histomorphometry parameters. Furthermore, molecular docking of the structural influence of curcumin and taurine on the DNA sequence showed curcumin's higher binding affinity than taurine. Conclusion: Both curcumin and taurine ameliorated T-2 induced hepatotoxicity as strong antioxidative agents with more effectiveness for curcumin.

Effects of T-2 toxin on growth performance, feather quality, tibia development and blood parameters in Yangzhou goslings

T-2 toxin is a dangerous natural pollutant and widely exists in animal feed, often causing toxic damage to poultry, such as slow growth and development, immunosuppression, and death. Although geese are considered the most sensitive poultry to T-2 toxin, the exact damage caused by T-2 toxin to geese is elusive. In the present study, a total of forty two 1-day-old healthy Yangzhou male goslings were randomly allotted seven diets contaminated with 0, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, 1.0, or 2.0 mg/kg T-2 toxin for 21 d, and the effects of T-2 toxin exposure on growth performance, feather quality, tibia development, and blood parameters were investigated. The results showed that T-2 toxin exposure significantly inhibited feed intake, body weight gain, shank length growth, and organ development (e.g., ileum, cecum, liver, spleen, bursa, and tibia) in a dose-dependent manner. In addition, the more serious feathering abnormalities and feather damage were observed in goslings exposed to a high dose of T-2 toxin (0.8, 1.0, and 2.0 mg/kg), which were mainly sparsely covered with short, dry, rough, curly, and gloss-free feathers on the back. We also found that hypertrophic chondrocytes of the tibial growth plate exhibited abnormal morphology and nuclear consolidation or loss, accompanied by necrosis and excessive apoptosis under 2.0 mg/kg T-2 toxin exposure. Moreover, 2.0 mg/kg T-2 toxin exposure triggered erythropenia, thrombocytosis, alanine aminotransferase, and aspartate aminotransferase activity, as well as high blood urea nitrogen, uric acid, and lactic dehydrogenase levels. Collectively, these data indicate that T-2 toxin had an adverse effect on the growth performance, feather quality, and tibia development, and caused liver and kidney damage and abnormal blood parameters in Yangzhou goslings, providing crucial information toward the prevention and control of T-2 toxin contamination in poultry feed.

Toxicity and detoxification of T-2 toxin in poultry

This review summarizes the updated knowledge on the toxicity of T-2 on poultry, followed by potential strategies for detoxification of T-2 in poultry diet. The toxic effects of T-2 on poultry include cytotoxicity, genotoxicity, metabolism modulation, immunotoxicity, hepatotoxicity, gastrointestinal toxicity, skeletal toxicity, nephrotoxicity, reproductive toxicity, neurotoxicity, etc. Cytotoxicity is the primary toxicity of T-2, characterized by inhibiting protein and nucleic acid synthesis, altering the cell cycle, inducing oxidative stress, apoptosis and necrosis, which lead to damages of immune organs, liver, digestive tract, bone, kidney, etc., resulting in pathological changes and impaired physiological functions of these organs. Glutathione redox system, superoxide dismutase, catalase and autophagy are protective mechanisms against oxidative stress and apoptosis, and can compensate the pathological changes and physiological functions impaired by T-2 to some degree. T-2 detoxifying agents for poultry feeds include adsorbing agents (e.g., aluminosilicate-based clays and microbial cell wall), biotransforming agents (e.g., Eubacterium sp. BBSH 797 strain), and indirect detoxifying agents (e.g., plant-derived antioxidants). These T-2 detoxifying agents could alleviate different pathological changes to different degrees, and multi-component T-2 detoxifying agents can likely provide more comprehensive protection against the toxicity of T-2.

Toxic mechanisms of the trichothecenes T-2 toxin and deoxynivalenol on protein synthesis

The toxic mechanisms of trichothecenes, including T-2 toxin and deoxynivalenol (DON), are closely related with their effects on protein synthesis. Increasing lines of evidence show that T-2 toxin can reduce the levels of tight junction proteins, and nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) by disrupting cellular barriers and the cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP)-protein kinase A (PKA) and Nrf2/heme oxygenase (HO)-1 pathways. Moreover, it can inhibit aggrecan synthesis, thus causing Kashin-Beck disease. Regarding type B trichothecene, DON inhibits activation marker and β-catenin synthesis by acting on immune cells and the wingless/integrated (Wnt) pathway; it also inhibits cell proliferation and immune surveillance. In addition, DON has been shown to destroy tight junctions, glucose transport, and tumor endothelial marker 8, thus disturbing intestinal function and changing cell migration. This review summarizes the inhibitory effects of the trichothecenes T-2 toxin and DON on different protein synthesis, while discussing their underlying mechanisms. Focus is given to the effects of these toxins on tight junctions, aggrecan, activation markers, and hormones including testosterone under the influence of steroidogenic enzymes. This review can extend the current understanding of the effects of trichothecenes on protein synthesis and help to further understand their toxic mechanisms.

Differential Effects of Green Tea Powders on the Protection of Brown Tsaiya and Kaiya Ducklings against Trichothecene T-2 Toxin Toxicity

Simple Summary

The objective of this study is to examine the effects of T-2 toxin (T-2) and green tea powders (GTP) on growth performance, hematology, and pathology parameters in Brown Tsaiya ducklings (BTDs) and Kaiya ducklings (KDs). T-2 toxin shows a strong and differential toxicity in growth suppression, as well as abnormalities in the hematological and pathological parameters of BTDs and KDs. We found that GTP could potentially prevent T-2-induced poor growth performance and improve some hematological parameters. Moreover, BTDs were more sensitive than KDs in terms of responses to T-2 toxicity and GTP detoxification.

Abstract

A 3-week feeding trial in a 3 × 2 × 2 factorial design was conducted with three concentrations (0, 0.5, and 5 mg/kg) of T-2 toxin (T-2) and two levels (0% and 0.5%) of green tea powder (GTP) supplements used in the diets of female brown Tsaiya ducklings (BTDs) and Kaiya ducklings (KDs), respectively. Breed had a significant effect on the growth performances and the relative weights of organs and carcass. In general, the growth performances of KDs were better than BTDs. The relative weights of organs and carcass of BTDs were typically heavier than those of KDs; however, the breast of KDs was heavier than those of BTDs. Both ducklings received 5 mg/kg of T-2 blended in the diet showed lower feed intake and body weight gain (BWG) in the second and the third week. The diet containing 5 mg/kg of T-2 and 0.5% GTP improved the BWG compared to those fed the diet supplemented with 5 mg/kg of T-2 without GTP in BTDs. Ducklings fed the diet containing 5 mg/kg of T-2 induced hypocalcemia and hypomagnesemia, as well as decreased concentrations of creatine phosphokinase and alkaline phosphatase. The concentrations of blood urea nitrogen (BUN) and glutamate oxaloacetate transaminase (GOT) were increased in KDs and BTDs fed the diet containing 5 mg/kg of T-2 without GTP, respectively. However, duckling diets containing 5 mg/kg of T-2 with 0.5% GTP lowered concentrations of BUN and GOT in the blood plasma of KDs and BTDs, respectively. The diet containing 5 mg/kg of T-2 increased the relative kidney weight but decreased the relative breast weight of ducklings. Enlarged gizzards and reduced relative leg weights were observed in BTDs fed the diets containing 5 mg/kg of T-2. In summary, BTDs are more sensitive than KDs in responding to T-2 toxicity and GTP detoxification. Green tea powder has detoxification ability and could potentially mitigate T-2 toxicity on BWG, BUN, and GOT in ducklings.

Role of the glutathione redox system in the susceptibility of pheasants (Phasianus colchicus) to ochratoxin A

The purpose of the present study was to investigate the effects of different dietary concentrations of ochratoxin A (OTA) on the growth, feed intake, mortality, blood plasma protein content and some parameters of lipid peroxidation and the glutathione redox system of pheasant chicks in a three-week long trial. A total of 320 seven-day-old female pheasants were randomly assigned to four treatment groups (n = 40 in each), fed with a diet artificially contaminated with OTA [control (<0.02 mg/kg), 0.88 mg/kg, 1.14 mg/kg and 1.51 mg/kg] for 21 days (up to 28 days of age). The pheasant chicks were sacrificed at early (12, 24 and 72 h) and late (7, 14 and 21 days) stages of mycotoxin exposure to check the effect of OTA. Minimal feed refusal was found in the medium- and high-dose toxin groups (-9.8 and -7.9%, respectively), and body weight gain was nearly the same in all groups. The glutathione redox system was activated mainly in the liver, confirmed by significantly increased reduced glutathione content and glutathione peroxidase activity during the late phase of mycotoxin exposure and at a high-dose treatment. The results suggest that pheasants have low susceptibility to OTA, and activation of the glutathione redox system has importance in this tolerance.

Impact of milk thistle (Silybum marianum) on the mycotoxin caused redox-homeostasis imbalance of ducks liver

The Fusarium mycotoxins deoxynivalenol (DON) and zearalenone (ZEA) frequently contaminate grain crops, especially maize, the basis of poultry's feed. Mycotoxins enter the food chain and induce pathological changes in edible tissues. Milk thistle (Silybum marianum) has been used for the treatment of liver disease in humans because of its antioxidant and hepatoprotective effects, but its utility in veterinary use is poorly examined. To investigate possible protective properties against mycotoxin caused oxidative stress in poultry, pressed form of milk thistle seed (0.5%) was tested in white, female, Hungarian ducks over a feeding period of 47 days. Ducks were separated into 3 groups. The first group was fed with normal diet. The second group was fed with normal diet contaminated with DON (4.9 mg/kg) and ZEA (0.66 mg/kg). The third group received mycotoxin contaminated feed with milk thistle supplementation. Histological examination, markers of the redox status and metal element concentration measurements were carried out. The results showed alterations in the histological examination and in the redox homeostasis markers as a short-term effect by strengthening the antioxidant system. Acute exposure of mycotoxins caused an oxidative stress, which induced an effective antioxidant defensive response of the organism indicated by the free sulfhydryl group content (from 0.72 ± 0.06 to 0.77 ± 0.11) and the reducing power (0.49 ± 0.06 to 0.52 ± 0.08) elevation. The short-term free radical injury may be compensated by the liver resulting in decreased lipid peroxidation markers (malondialdehyde concentration: from 16.86 ± 0.49 to 0.94 ± 0.15, conjugated diene concentration: from 0.21 ± 0.07 to 0.17 ± 0.03). Silymarin further strengthtened the antioxidant defense by the elevation of sulfhydryl groups concentration and reducing power property resulted in decreased total scavenger capacity. However the concentration of lipid peroxidation markers were further elevated by the used antioxidant treatment (MDA: 5.2 ± 0.35, DC: 0.26 ± 0.08). In conclusion, the mycotoxin-contamination activated effectively the antioxidant system. The milk thistle supplementation has cytoprotective effects according to the histological findings, activated the antioxidant system, however the elevation of lipid peroxidation products need further explanation.

Detoxifying effects of optimal hyperoxia (40% oxygenation) exposure on benzo[a]pyrene-induced toxicity in human keratinocytes

Detoxifying effects of hyperoxia, which is widely used in clinical practice, were investigated using HaCat cells (human keratinocytes) treated with benzo[a]pyrene (B[a]P) as a model agent to induce adverse effects in the skin. It is well-established that B[a]P may produce toxicities including cancer, endocrine disruption, and phototoxicity involving DNA damage, free radical generation, and down regulation of nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2). It is well-known that Nrf2 is associated increase of antioxidant enzyme catalase (CAT) or detoxification enzyme glutathione S-transferase (GST) in HaCat cells treated with B[a]P under optimal condition of hyperoxia (40% oxygenation) conditions. To further examine the underlying basis of this phenomenon, factors affecting the expression of Nrf2 were determined. Nrf2 was upregulated accompanied by a rise in p38 MAPK, sequestosome-1 (also known as p62) and NF-κB. In contrast, Nrf2 was downregulated associated with an elevation in glycogen synthase kinase 3 beta (GSK-3β) and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha (PPARα). Hyperoxia was also found to diminish DNA damage and generation of free radicals initiated in B[a]P-treated cells which was attributed to an significant rise of Nrf2, leading to elevated antioxidant activities or detoxification proteins including heme oxygenase 1 (HO-1), superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase-1/2 (GPX-1/2), CAT, GST and glutathione (GSH). In addition, factors related to skin aging were also altered by hyperoxia. Data suggest that optimal hyperoxia exposure of 40% oxygenation may reduce cellular toxicity induced by B[a]P in HaCat cells as evidenced by inhibition of DNA damage, free radical generation, and down-regulation of Nrf2.

Role of glutathione redox system on the susceptibility to deoxynivalenol of pheasant (Phasianus colchicus)

There are only a few reports on the effects of mycotoxins on pheasant (Phasianus colchicus) and the susceptibility to deoxynivalenol of these birds have never been reported before. The present experiment focuses to investigate the effects of different dietary concentrations of deoxynivalenol on blood plasma protein content, some parameters of lipid peroxidation and glutathione redox system and on the performance of pheasant chicks. A total of 320 1-day-old female pheasants were randomly assigned to four treatment groups fed with a diet contaminated with deoxynivalenol (control, 5.11 mg/kg, 11.68 mg/kg and 16.89 mg/kg). Birds were sacrificed at early (12, 24 and 72 h) and late (1, 2 and 3 weeks) stages of the experiment to demonstrate the oxidative stress-inducing effect of deoxynivalenol. Feed refusal was dose dependent, especially in the last third of the trial, but only minor body weight gain decrease was found. Lipid-peroxidation parameters did not show dose-dependent effect, except in blood plasma during the early stage of the trial. The glutathione redox system, reduced glutathione content and glutathione peroxidase activity, was activated in the liver, but primarily in the blood plasma. Glutathione peroxidase activity has changed parallel with reduced glutathione concentration in all tissues. Comparing our results with literature data, pheasants seem to have the same or higher tolerance to deoxynivalenol than other avian species, and glutathione redox system might contribute in some extent to this tolerance, as effective antioxidant defence against oxidative stress.