New developments in transplant-acquired allergies

Atopy and allergy following solid organ transplantation: A 15-year experience

AIM

There are increasing reports of atopy/allergy following solid organ transplantation, especially paediatric liver transplantation (LT) with minimal New Zealand (NZ) data. We describe the prevalence of transplant-acquired atopy and allergy (TAA) in NZ paediatric liver transplant recipients, compared to paediatric kidney and adult liver transplants.

METHODS

TAA focussed health questionnaires were sent to patients selected from the NZ transplant registry (transplanted between January 2003 and December 2017). Demographic and clinical data were also obtained from electronic health records and follow-up phone calls.

RESULTS

A total of 232 patients (62% male) participated (111 adult liver, 82 paediatric liver, 39 paediatric kidney transplant recipients). Tacrolimus was primary immunosuppression for all LT patients; with combined tacrolimus, mycophenolate and corticosteroids for kidney transplants. The number of patients who developed TAA was significantly higher (P < 0.001) in the paediatric LT group (36/82, 44%) compared to adult liver (12/111, 11%) and paediatric kidney transplants (4/39, 10%). Eczema was most common (73%), then IgE-mediated food allergy (FA, 33%), allergic rhinitis (19%) and asthma (17%). Six paediatric LT recipients developed eosinophilic oesophagitis (EoE). Egg was the most common allergen in the IgE-mediated FA group. TAAs were severe enough to warrant a switch from tacrolimus to another agent in seven paediatric LT patients. For paediatric LT patients, female gender and younger age at transplant were risk factors for developing TAA.

CONCLUSIONS

TAA is common in paediatric liver transplant recipients, with female gender and younger age at transplant being risk factors identified. This highlights the need for detailed atopic and allergy history to be incorporated in all pre-transplant assessments.

De Novo Food Allergy in Pediatric Recipients of Liver Transplant

ABSTRACT

Allergic and atopic conditions, including food allergy, asthma, eczema and eosinophilic disease of the gastrointestinal tract after liver transplant in previously non-allergic children have been increasingly described. After a liver transplant, children can present mild to severe reactions to food allergens (ie, from urticaria-angioedema to life-threatening anaphylactic reactions). De novo post-transplant food allergy may become clinically evident in children who undergo liver transplant between a few months and a few years of transplant. The present narrative review aims to describe the spectrum of de novo post-transplant food allergy development, the current theories of pathogenesis, risk factors and to suggest possible clinical management strategies.

A review on the effect of prolyl isomerization on immune response aberration and hypersensitivity reactions: A unifying hypothesis

Little is known about the causes and mechanisms of ectopic immune responses, including different types of hypersensitivity, superantigens, and cytokine storms. Two of the most questionable phenomena observed in immunology are why the intensity and extent of immune responses to different antigens are different, and why some self-antigens are attacked as foreign. The secondary structure of the peptides involved in the immune system, such as the epitope-paratope interfaces plays a pivotal role in the resulting immune responses. Prolyl cis/trans isomerization plays a fundamental role in the form of the secondary structure and the folding of proteins. This review covers some of the emerging evidence indicating the impact of prolyl isomerization on protein conformation, aberration of immune responses, and the development of hypersensitivity reactions.

Post-transplant eosinophilic gastrointestinal disorders and lymphoproliferative disorder in pediatric liver transplant recipients on tacrolimus

AIM

To examine and characterize post-transplant eosinophilic gastrointestinal disorders (PTEGID) and post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorder (PTLD) in pediatric liver transplant recipients.

METHODS

This is a single center retrospective study of all liver transplant recipients aged 0-18 years from 1999 to 2019 who received tacrolimus as their primary immunosuppressant. Demographic data and clinical/laboratory data including PTEGID, PTLD, liver transplant types, Epstein-Barr virus status, and blood eosinophil count were reviewed. Analysis was done with logistic regression and Mann-Whitney U test.

RESULTS

Ninety-eight pediatric liver transplant recipients were included with median age at transplantation of 3.3 years (IQR: 1.1-9.3). The major indication for transplantation was biliary atresia, 51 (52%) cases. Eight (8%) children had PTLD and 14 (14%) had PTEGID. Receiving liver transplantation at an age of ≤1 year was associated with developing PTEGID (OR = 11.9, 95% CI = 3.5-45.6, p < 0.001). Additionally, eosinophilic count of ≥500/μL was associated with having PTLD (OR = 10.7, 95% CI = 1.8-206.0, p = 0.030) as well as having at least one liver rejection (OR = 2.8, 95% CI = 1.2-7.0, p = 0.024). The frequency of food-induced anaphylaxis significantly increased post-transplantation (p = 0.023).

CONCLUSIONS

PTEGID and PTLD are common in this cohort and are associated with certain risk factors that help screen children to improve recipient survival. Further studies are needed to evaluate the clinical benefits of these findings.

Transfer and loss of allergen-specific responses via stem cell transplantation: A prospective observational study

BACKGROUND

Currently, no estimates can be made on the impact of hematopoietic stem cell transplantation on allergy transfer or cure of the disease. By using component-resolved diagnosis, we prospectively investigated 50 donor-recipient pairs undergoing allogeneic stem cell transplantation. This allowed calculating the rate of transfer or maintenance of allergen-specific responses in the context of stem cell transplantation.

METHODS

Allergen-specific IgE and IgG to 156 allergens was measured pretransplantation in 50 donors and recipients and at 6, 12 and 24 months in recipients post-transplantation by allergen microarray. Based on a mixed effects model, we determined risks of transfer of allergen-specific IgE or IgG responses 24 months post-transplantation.

RESULTS

After undergoing stem cell transplantation, 94% of allergen-specific IgE responses were lost. Two years post-transplantation, recipients' allergen-specific IgE was significantly linked to the pretransplantation donor or recipient status. The estimated risk to transfer and maintain individual IgE responses to allergens by stem cell transplantation was 1.7% and 2.3%, respectively. Allergen-specific IgG, which served as a surrogate marker of maintaining protective IgG responses, was highly associated with the donor's (31.6%) or the recipient's (28%) pretransplantation response.

CONCLUSION

Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation profoundly reduces allergen-specific IgE responses but also comes with a considerable risk to transfer allergen-specific immune responses. These findings facilitate clinical decision-making regarding allergic diseases in the context of hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. In addition, it provides prospective data to estimate the risk of transmitting allergen-specific responses via hematopoietic stem cell transplantation.

Psoriasis and IgE-mediated allergy: correlation or mutual inhibition? : A prospective cohort study in patients with mild or moderate to severe psoriasis

BACKGROUND

Psoriasis is an autoimmune disease caused by overactivation of T_H1 (Type 1 helper cells) and T_H17 (T helper 17) cells. Overactivation of T_H1 cells inhibits the activity of T_H2 cells involved in type 1 allergies, therefore, psoriasis patients might be less affected by type 1 allergies. This study tested if allergies were less frequent in patients with moderate to severe than with mild psoriasis.

METHODS

Psoriasis patients at the study site reported possible allergy symptoms and were tested for common allergens by skin prick test and IgE levels. Psoriasis was classified by PASI scores (Psoriasis Area and Severity Index) as mild (PASI <10) or moderate/severe (PASI ≥10). Patients without systemic therapy were assessed separately. Fisher's exact test was used to test for differences.

RESULTS

A total of 97 patients were included, 21 with mild and 76 with moderate to severe psoriasis. Allergies were found in 27.8%, most commonly against dust mites (23.4%) and grasses (18.1%). Allergies were found in 23.8% of the patients with mild vs. 29.0% allergic patients with moderate to severe psoriasis (P = 0.786). In patients without systemic medication, allergies were found in 21.1% vs. 35.3% (P = 0.463).

CONCLUSION

Allergy prevalence was not reduced in patients with moderate/severe psoriasis, and generally close to the prevalence in the general Austrian population (24%). The inhibiting effect of psoriasis on type 1 allergies was not confirmed.

Anti-Allergic and Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Undecane on Mast Cells and Keratinocytes

The critical roles of keratinocytes and resident mast cells in skin allergy and inflammation have been highlighted in many studies. Cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP), the intracellular second messenger, has also recently emerged as a target molecule in the immune reaction underlying inflammatory skin conditions. Here, we investigated whether undecane, a naturally occurring plant compound, has anti-allergic and anti-inflammatory activities on sensitized rat basophilic leukemia (RBL-2H3) mast cells and HaCaT keratinocytes and we further explored the potential involvement of the cAMP as a molecular target for undecane. We confirmed that undecane increased intracellular cAMP levels in mast cells and keratinocytes. In sensitized mast cells, undecane inhibited degranulation and the secretion of histamine and tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α). In addition, in sensitized keratinocytes, undecane reversed the increased levels of p38 phosphorylation, nuclear factor kappaB (NF-κB) transcriptional activity and target cytokine/chemokine genes, including thymus and activation-regulated chemokine (TARC), macrophage-derived chemokine (MDC) and interleukin-8 (IL-8). These results suggest that undecane may be useful for the prevention or treatment of skin inflammatory disorders, such as atopic dermatitis, and other allergic diseases.

The use of selective Th2 blocker dupilumab for the treatment of atopic dermatitis in a heart transplant patient: Case report

Atopic dermatitis (AD) is a chronic inflammatory skin disease characterized by relapsing eczematous rash with severe pruritus and recurrent infection. Topical emollients and immune-modulators (e.g., corticosteroids and calcineurin inhibitor) are first-line therapies for acute flares. In severe refractory cases, systemic immunosuppression may be required. Increased incidence of AD has been documented in heart-transplant children who receive their transplant or thymectomy before the age of 1 year. The treatment of these patients remains a conundrum for dermatologists. We present a case report of a chronically immunosuppressed transplant patient with severe AD treated with dupilumab and in remission for over 2 years with minimal side effects. We will also discuss impact of transplant immunosuppression in the pathogenesis of AD.

Increased regulatory T cells and eosinophils characterize atopic dermatitis-like graft-versus-host disease compared with lichen planus-like graft-versus-host disease

BACKGROUND

Graft-versus-host disease (GVHD) has various cutaneous manifestations. Little is known about the mechanisms of cutaneous GVHD with different clinical features.

OBJECTIVE

To characterize the immunologic features and skin barrier functions of cutaneous GVHD.

METHODS

The study included 19 patients with atopic dermatitis (AD)-like GVHD, 8 with lichen planus (LP)-like GVHD, 24 with AD, and 15 healthy controls. The subpopulation of T cells in peripheral blood and skin lesions was measured by flow cytometry and immunofluorescence, respectively. Filaggrin expression in skin lesions was measured by Western blot and immunohistochemistry. Transepidermal water loss was also measured using Tewameter TM 300 (Courage & Khazaka Electronic GmbH, Köln, Germany).

RESULTS

The number of peripheral blood eosinophils in AD-like GVHD was significantly higher than that in LP-like GVHD. Type 2 helper T cells in peripheral blood and skin lesions were increased in AD-like GVHD and LP-like GVHD. Regulatory T cells in peripheral blood and skin lesions were increased in AD-like GVHD. Filaggrin expression and transepidermal water loss were increased in skin lesions of AD-like GVHD and LP-like GVHD.

LIMITATIONS

The number of patients is limited.

CONCLUSION

Although AD-like GVHD and LP-like GVHD both had elevated type 2 helper T cells and impaired skin barrier, increased eosinophils and regulatory T cells were found only in AD-like GVHD.

IgE repertoire and immunological memory: compartmental regulation and antibody function

It is now generally recognized that bone marrow is the survival niche for antigen-specific plasma cells with long-term immunological memory. These cells release antibodies into the circulation, needed to prime effector cells in the secondary immune response. These antibodies participate in the surveillance for antigen and afford immune defence against pathogens and toxins previously encountered in the primary immune response. IgE antibodies function together with their effector cells, mast cells, to exert 'immediate hypersensitivity' in mucosal tissues at the front line of immune defence. The constant supply of IgE antibodies from bone marrow plasma cells allows the rapid 'recall response' by mast cells upon re-exposure to antigen even after periods of antigen absence. The speed and sensitivity of the IgE recall response and potency of the effector cell functions are advantageous in the early detection and elimination of pathogens and toxins at the sites of attack. Local antigen provocation also stimulates de novo synthesis of IgE or its precursors of other isotypes that undergo IgE switching in the mucosa. This process, however, introduces a delay before mast cells can be sensitized and resume activity; this is terminated shortly after the antigen is eliminated. Recent results from adaptive immune receptor repertoire sequencing of immunoglobulin genes suggest that the mucosal IgE+ plasmablasts, which have undergone affinity maturation in the course of their evolution in vivo, are a source of long-lived IgE+ plasma cells in the bone marrow that are already fully functional.

Increase of natural killer cells in children with liver transplantation-acquired food allergy

BACKGROUND

Transplantation-acquired food allergies (TAFA) are frequently reported and considered to be caused by immunosuppressive therapy. The aim of this study was to investigate the allergic and immunologic responses in children who had liver or kidney transplantations.

METHODS

Twelve children receiving liver transplantations and 10 children receiving kidney transplantations were investigated. All children underwent the allergy work-up and in most of them, lymphocyte screening and serum cytokine measurements were also performed.

RESULTS

TAFA were found in 7/12 (58%) children with liver transplantations and in none of the 10 children with kidney transplantations. The mean age at transplantation was significantly lower in children who underwent liver transplantations (p<0.001). The immunosuppressive therapy administered to children with liver transplantation was tacrolimus in 11 patients and cyclosporine in one patient, while all 10 children with kidney transplantation received tacrolimus plus mycophenolate. The most common antigenic food was egg. The natural killer (NK) cell numbers were significantly higher in liver-transplant children than in kidney-transplant children. No significant differences were found in the serum cytokine levels.

CONCLUSIONS

This study confirms that liver-transplant children treated with tacrolimus alone have a higher risk of developing TAFA than kidney-transplant children treated with tacrolimus plus mycophenolate. NK cells might be involved in this difference.

Donor-derived infections in solid organ transplant patients: toward a holistic approach

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Solid organ demand far exceeds organ supply. Strategies to increase the donor pool include the liberalization of selection criteria without increasing the risk of unexpected donor-derived infection (DDI), a rare complication of transplantation carrying high morbidity and mortality. We review the challenging aspects in the prevention of DDI, focusing on the complexities of data sharing and efficient communication and the role infectious diseases specialists play in the process.

RECENT FINDINGS

Advances in donor screening, transmission recognition and reporting allow for a better estimation of the risk of DDI. However, there is great variability in the frequency and methods with which organ procurement organizations report transmission events.Moreover, the Scientific Registry of Transplant Recipients provides limited donor and recipient outcome infectious diseases related data. Infectious disease contribution to the allocation process has been found to improve organ donation efficiency and communication between involved parties. Although communication gaps are strongly associated with infection transmission (relative risk 2.36%, confidence interval 1.48-3.78), effective communication minimizes or prevents infection in transplant recipients (X(1) 13.13, P = 0.0003).

SUMMARY

Prospective research is still required to define optimal screening protocols and further prevent transmission of infection. A holistic approach is likely to result in enhanced transplantation safety. Toward this goal, development of standards of investigation; improvement in reporting and data sharing; and strategies ensuring coordinated and rapid communication among parties involved in the allocation process need to be pursued.

Transplant-acquired food allergy: current perspectives

Mechanisms that regulate the tolerance to dietary proteins or the loss of this and subsequent development of disease are poorly understood. In food allergy, there is growing awareness of the urgency in understanding these events to aid in the development of next-generation therapies and interventions. This review focuses on the accumulating evidence related to food allergy that develops after transplantation. This intriguing immunological phenomenon has been described in several different types of transplant settings and to variety of different foods. We outline these studies and the evidence from them that support transplant-acquired food allergy being a process regulated by both the donor allergic status and the recipient genetics and treatments. A number of key risk factors seem prevalent throughout transplant-acquired food allergy and include type of transplant, age and general health of the recipient, modality of immunosuppression and potentially the genetics of both donor and recipient. Importantly, these studies provide a window into better general understanding of food allergy, and facilitate clearer understanding of the critical immunological and epidemiological factors needed to allow the adoptive transfer of a food-specific allergic disease from one individual to another.

Surgical and immune reconstitution murine models in bone marrow research: Potential for exploring mechanisms in sepsis, trauma and allergy

Bone marrow, the vital organ which maintains lifelong hemopoiesis, currently receives considerable attention, as a source of multiple cell types which may play important roles in repair at distant sites. This emerging function, distinct from, but closely related to, bone marrow roles in innate immunity and inflammation, has been characterized through a number of strategies. However, the use of surgical models in this endeavour has hitherto been limited. Surgical strategies allow the experimenter to predetermine the site, timing, severity and invasiveness of injury; to add or remove aggravating factors (such as infection and defects in immunity) in controlled ways; and to manipulate the context of repair, including reconstitution with selected immune cell subpopulations. This endows surgical models overall with great potential for exploring bone marrow responses to injury, inflammation and infection, and its roles in repair and regeneration. We review three different murine surgical models, which variously combine trauma with infection, antigenic stimulation, or immune reconstitution, thereby illuminating different aspects of the bone marrow response to systemic injury in sepsis, trauma and allergy. They are: (1) cecal ligation and puncture, a versatile model of polymicrobial sepsis; (2) egg white implant, an intriguing model of eosinophilia induced by a combination of trauma and sensitization to insoluble allergen; and (3) ectopic lung tissue transplantation, which allows us to dissect afferent and efferent mechanisms leading to accumulation of hemopoietic cells in the lungs. These models highlight the gain in analytical power provided by the association of surgical and immunological strategies.

Influence of antibiotic use in early childhood on asthma and allergic diseases at age 5

BACKGROUND

In the past few decades, the prevalence of allergic diseases has increased rapidly worldwide. At the same time, the overuse of antibiotics has been observed, especially in Japan.

OBJECTIVE

To elucidate the association of early childhood antibiotic use with allergic diseases in later childhood at 5 years of age.

METHODS

Relevant data were extracted from the hospital-based birth cohort study, the Tokyo Children's Health, Illness and Development Study. To identify signs of asthma and allergic diseases in children, the International Study of Asthma and Allergies in Childhood questionnaire was used. Logistic regression models were applied to estimate the effect of antibiotic use on outcomes in later life.

RESULTS

Antibiotic exposure in children within the first 2 years of life was associated with current asthma (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] 1.72, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.10-2.70), current atopic dermatitis (aOR 1.40, 95% CI 1.01-1.94), and current allergic rhinitis (aOR 1.65, 95% CI 1. 05-2.58) at 5 years of age. Analysis of the associations by type of antibiotics showed that cephem was associated with current asthma (aOR 1.97, 95% CI 1.23-3.16) and current rhinitis (aOR 1.82, 95% CI 1.12-2.93), and macrolide was associated with current atopic dermatitis (aOR 1.58, 95% CI 1.07-2.33).

CONCLUSION

Our findings suggest that antibiotic use within the first 2 years of life was a risk factor for current asthma, current atopic dermatitis, and current allergic rhinitis in 5-year-old children.

Airway inflammation and symptoms in children following liver and heart transplantation

OBJECTIVES

To describe the upper airway endoscopic findings of children with upper airway symptoms after liver transplantation (LT) or heart transplantation (HT).

METHODS

Review of children undergoing airway endoscopy after LT or HT from 2011 to 2015 at a tertiary care pediatric hospital. Airway findings, biopsy results, immunosuppression, and Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) levels were recorded.

RESULTS

Twenty-three of 158 LT (111) and HT (47) recipients underwent endoscopy. Median time from LT to endoscopy was 9 months (range 4-25) and 31 months (range 1-108) for HT. Thirteen of 23 patients presented with upper airway symptoms, and 10/23 presented with respiratory failure or for surveillance. Thirteen patients with upper airway symptoms had abnormal findings (7 LT; 6 HT), most commonly arytenoid edema (13 patients). There were five EBV-positive biopsies (four with post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorder), and six EBV-negative biopsies with lymphocytic inflammation. One biopsy demonstrated fungal infection. Immunosuppression was decreased in seven patients, and three received steroids. There were no episodes of allograft rejection. No patients had airway symptoms at last follow-up.

CONCLUSIONS

In pediatric solid organ transplant recipients, symptoms of airway obstruction are not uncommon and should be evaluated with endoscopy. Endoscopy without symptoms is low-yield. Treatment with decreased immunosuppression improved airway symptoms.

Inflammatory Cutaneous Diseases in Renal Transplant Recipients

Kidney transplant recipients frequently suffer from skin infections and malignancies, possibly due to the effects of long-term immunosuppressive therapy. While the relationships between immunosuppression and these pathological conditions have been widely investigated, little is known about the relative incidence and characteristics of inflammatory skin diseases in this type of patient. In this study, we analyze the incidence of a number of inflammatory cutaneous diseases in a cohort of patients who underwent kidney transplantation. Although our study shows a relatively low incidence of these pathologies in transplanted patients-in agreement with the general action of immunosuppressant therapies in reducing inflammation-we scored a different efficacy of the various immunosuppressive regimens on inflammatory and autoimmune skin diseases. This information can be key for designing immunosuppressive regimens and devising accurate follow-up protocols.

A lurking threat: transfer of peanut allergy through peripheral blood stem cell transplantation

Background

There exist several reports of atopy and allergen-specific IgE-mediated hypersensitivity transferred by bone marrow transplantation, and it has been concluded that the transfer of allergic reactivity results from adoptive transfer of IgE-producing donor-derived B- and/or plasma cells. To the best of our knowledge we report the first case of peanut allergy after PBSCT.

Case Presentation

A 55-year-old anciently non allergic man with secondary acute myeloid leukemia (AML) received an allogeneic peripheral blood stem cell transplantation from a matched unrelated donor following reduced-intensity conditioning. On day 32 after PBSCT, while still on prophylactic systemic immunosuppression, the patient noticed a first episode of angioedema with swelling of the nasal and oral mucosa 30 min after consuming peanut puffs. In a second episode, eight months after PBSCT, he again developed angioedema, generalized pruritus and nausea within minutes after eating biscuits containing hazelnut and peanut. Moreover, after topical application of a peanut oil-containing ointment, the patient experienced facial erythema and angioedema. Nine months after PBSCT an evaluation for peanut allergy revealed a highly increased specific IgE to peanut of 75.9 kU/l. Accordingly, skin prick tests for peanut extract were also positive. In consequence, the patient was counseled to strictly avoid peanut-related products, and provided with an emergency set. No adverse allergic events have occurred since for an observation time of 15 months after PBSCT. The stem cell donor was contacted and confirmed intolerance to peanuts. His specific serum IgE pattern nine month after PBSCT harvest was analysed and showed similar sensitization profiles compared to those of the transplant recipient.

Conclusions

Because of the close temporal association between the onset of allergic symptoms in the PBSC recipient it is reasonable to assume that the acquired peanut allergy had been transferred from the donor to the recipient by the PBSC graft.

Management of tacrolimus-associated food allergy after liver transplantation

Increasingly, food allergy associated with tacrolimus after pediatric living-donor liver transplantation (LT) has been reported. Tacrolimus prevents the activation of T cells by blocking calcineurin, thus producing an immunosuppressive effect, but tacrolimus induces an imbalance in T-helper type 1 (Th1) and Th2 cells in the food allergy process. This report describes a case of tacrolimus-associated food allergy after pediatric living-donor LT. The patient was a 7-year-old Japanese girl who had undergone living-donor LT at 12 months of age, and whom we first saw in the clinic at age 18 months. She received immunosuppressive therapy by tacrolimus after transplantation. Atopic dermatitis developed in post-transplant month 18. Stridor, facial edema, lip swelling, and skin erythema after consuming tempura udon containing wheat occurred in post-transplant month 39, and she was subsequently diagnosed with anaphylactic shock. Eosinophilic leukocyte and serum immunoglobulin (Ig)E increased, and specific IgE was positive for some food allergens. Pharmacotherapy was therefore changed from tacrolimus to cyclosporine A, after which eosinophilic leukocyte and serum IgE decreased and atopic dermatitis improved.

Food allergies developing after solid organ transplant

The development of food allergy is an increasingly recognized form of morbidity after solid organ transplant. It occurs more commonly in liver transplant recipients, although it has also been reported in heart, lung, kidney, and intestinal transplants. Pediatric transplant recipients are more likely to develop symptoms compared to adults, and reports of frequency vary widely from 5% to 38% in pediatric liver transplant recipients. Multiple mechanisms have been proposed in the literature, although no single mechanism can yet account for all reported observations. As food allergy can have at worst potentially fatal consequences, and at best require lifestyle adjustment through food avoidance, it is important for recipients to be aware of the donor's food allergies and particularly in pediatrics, the possibility of completely de novo allergies. This review explores the recent reports surrounding food allergy after solid organ transplant, including epidemiology, proposed mechanisms, and implications for practice.

Atopic allergy and chronic inflammation of the oral mucosa in a 3-year-old boy after heart transplantation - diagnostic and therapeutic difficulties

In recent years, we have been observing an increased proportion of atopic diseases in children after solid organ transplantation. The pathogenesis of post-transplantation allergy is not completely understood and probably involves several factors, including immunosuppressive therapy. In this paper we present a case of 3-year old boy, after orthotopic heart transplantation at 6 months of age, with symptoms of food allergy associated with atopic dermatitis and changes in the orofacial area. The mentioned symptoms and elevated levels of total and specific IgE occurred with a year of transplant. Because of failure to achieve remission after typical allergy therapy we suspected that the reason of allergy in this case can be immunosuppressive therapy.