Piglets' surface temperature change at different weights at birth

Thermal imaging and computer vision technologies for the enhancement of pig husbandry: a review

Pig farming, a vital industry, necessitates proactive measures for early disease detection and crush symptom monitoring to ensure optimum pig health and safety. This review explores advanced thermal sensing technologies and computer vision-based thermal imaging techniques employed for pig disease and piglet crush symptom monitoring on pig farms. Infrared thermography (IRT) is a non-invasive and efficient technology for measuring pig body temperature, providing advantages such as non-destructive, long-distance, and high-sensitivity measurements. Unlike traditional methods, IRT offers a quick and labor-saving approach to acquiring physiological data impacted by environmental temperature, crucial for understanding pig body physiology and metabolism. IRT aids in early disease detection, respiratory health monitoring, and evaluating vaccination effectiveness. Challenges include body surface emissivity variations affecting measurement accuracy. Thermal imaging and deep learning algorithms are used for pig behavior recognition, with the dorsal plane effective for stress detection. Remote health monitoring through thermal imaging, deep learning, and wearable devices facilitates non-invasive assessment of pig health, minimizing medication use. Integration of advanced sensors, thermal imaging, and deep learning shows potential for disease detection and improvement in pig farming, but challenges and ethical considerations must be addressed for successful implementation. This review summarizes the state-of-the-art technologies used in the pig farming industry, including computer vision algorithms such as object detection, image segmentation, and deep learning techniques. It also discusses the benefits and limitations of IRT technology, providing an overview of the current research field. This study provides valuable insights for researchers and farmers regarding IRT application in pig production, highlighting notable approaches and the latest research findings in this field.

Statistical and machine learning approaches to describe factors affecting preweaning mortality of piglets

High preweaning mortality (PWM) rates for piglets are a significant concern for the worldwide pork industries, causing economic loss and well-being issues. This study focused on identifying the factors affecting PWM, overlays, and predicting PWM using historical production data with statistical and machine learning models. Data were collected from 1,982 litters from the U.S. Meat Animal Research Center, Nebraska, over the years 2016 to 2021. Sows were housed in a farrowing building with three rooms, each with 20 farrowing crates, and taken care of by well-trained animal caretakers. A generalized linear model was used to analyze the various sow, litter, environment, and piglet parameters on PWM. Then, different models (beta-regression and machine learning model: a random forest [RF]) were evaluated. Finally, the RF model was used to predict PWM and overlays for all listed contributing factors. On average, the mean birth weight was 1.44 kg, and the mean mortality was 16.1% where 5.55% was for stillbirths and 6.20% was contributed by overlays. No significant effect was found for seasonal and location variations on PWM. Significant differences were observed in the effects of litter lines on PWM (P < 0.05). Landrace-sired litters had a PWM of 16.26% (±0.13), whereas Yorkshire-sired litters had 15.91% (±0.13). PWM increased with higher parity orders (P < 0.05) due to larger litter sizes. The RF model provided the best fit for PWM prediction with a root mean squared errors of 2.28 and a correlation coefficient (r) of 0.89 between observed and predicted values. Features' importance from the RF model indicated that, PWM increased with the increase of litter size (mean decrease accuracy (MDA) = 93.17), decrease in mean birth weight (MDA = 22.72), increase in health diagnosis (MDA = 15.34), longer gestation length (MDA = 11.77), and at older parity (MDA = 10.86). However, in this study, the location of the farrowing crate, seasonal differences, and litter line turned out to be the least important predictors for PWM. For overlays, parity order was the highest importance predictor (MDA = 7.68) followed by litter size and mean birth weight. Considering the challenges to reducing the PWM in the larger litters produced in modern swine industry and the limited studies exploring multiple major contributing factors, this study provides valuable insights for breeding and production management, as well as further investigations on postural transitions and behavior analysis of sows during the lactation period.

Associations between Surface and Rectal Temperature Profiles of Low-Birth-Weight Piglets

The use of infrared cameras to record surface temperature has shown some promise in older pigs, but neonatal piglets are metabolically less mature and experience rapid temperature changes during their first 24 h. The present experiment aimed to compare rectal temperature to surface temperature at the base of the ear, measured using an infrared camera, for piglets of different birth weights. During farrowing, 48 multiparous sows were monitored, and rectal and surface temperatures were recorded for their lower-birth-weight (≤1.2 kg) piglets within 3 min of birth and at 0.25, 0.50, 0.75, 1, 1.25, 1.50, 2, 3, 4, and 24 h. Piglet birth weights were assigned to one of three categories (BWC): BWC1 (≤0.80 kg), BWC2 (0.81 to 1.10 kg), or BWC3 (1.11 to 1.20 kg). Piglet rectal temperatures at 1.25 h after birth were assigned to one of three categories: RC1 (≤32.0 °C), RC2 (32.1 to 35.0 °C), or RC3 (≥35.1 °C). Surface temperatures showed a similar recovery pattern to rectal temperatures in the first 24 h across all piglet birth weights, although large and variable differences seen in the current study militate against surface temperature being an appropriate replacement for neonatal rectal temperature for use in production.

Effect of thiamine pyrophosphate on the characteristics of farrowing and piglet vitality

Asphyxia is considered the main non-infectious cause of prepartum mortality in swine, as well as an important factor that negatively affects neonatal vitality and can trigger physiological and metabolic disorders. Hence, the search for pharmacological protocols to reduce the harmful effects of asphyxia is a key area of research. Recent observations show that administering thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP) prior to a hypoxic event in certain species (rabbits, rats) has a neuroprotector effect that preserves energy metabolism under hypoxic conditions. Given this, the objective of this study was to evaluate a prophylactic protocol in high- and low-vitality neonate piglets based on TPP's effect on physiological and metabolic responses, body temperature, and weight. A total of 149 piglets born from 15 multiparous sows were used. The dams were randomly divided into two groups: control (NaCl 0.9%) and TPP (25 ml of TTP) administered 24 and 12 h before the expected farrowing date. The following reproductive variables of the sows were recorded: duration of farrowing, total number of piglets born per litter, number of liveborn piglets per litter, number of stillbirths and mummified fetuses at birth, and number of live piglets at weaning. In addition, the expulsion interval and vitality of all neonates were evaluated, body temperatures were recorded at ten intervals, and physiological profiles (blood gases, electrolytes, glucose) were registered for each neonate. Results show that the TPP-treated sows had shorter farrowing duration (P = 0.0060) and higher percentage of high-vitality neonates (60%). Moreover, their offspring exhibited greater vitality, fewer imbalances in their physiological and metabolic profiles, and greater weight gain at weaning (P < 0.0001). Findings suggest that administering TPP exerts a protective effect when hypoxic events occur, though this differs from results obtained with rat pups, where applying TPP after such events did not provide protection from asphyxia-induced damage. These differences may be due to the moment at which TPP was applied. The application time we selected was distinct from the procedure followed with rats because it was based on a dataset that describes the influence of administering TPP as a prophylactic treatment before a hypoxic event. Prophylactic administration of TPP to sows at the end of gestation exerted a neuroprotective effect on neonatal vitality and gas exchanges and energy metabolism in the offspring that were reflected in the greater weekly weight gain in those piglets.

Effects of Injectable Administration of Dexamethasone Alone or in Combination with Vitamin E/Se in Newborn Low Birth Weight Piglets

Increasing litter size may lead to low-birth-weight piglets (LBW) and further negative long-term effects. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of intramuscular administration (IM) of dexamethasone (Dexa) alone or in combination with vitamin E/Se on LBW piglets during the early postnatal period. The study included a total of 100 LBW piglets that were divided into 5 groups (20 LBW piglets per group) and treated with IM Dexa alone or in combination with vitamin E/Se (Vit E/Se) after birth as follows: (a) Group A-Cont: Control group, (b) Group B-Dexa1: Dexa on D1 (1st day of life), (c) Group C-Dexa3: Dexa on D1, D2, D3 (D2: 2nd day of life, D3: 3rd day of life), (d) Group D-Dexa + VitE/S1: Dexa + Vit E/Se on D1, and (e) Group E-Dexa + VitE/S3: Dexa + Vit E/Se (IM) on D1, D2, D3. Body weight (BW) and the Average Daily Weight Gain (ADWG) were recorded for all piglets on days 1, 7, 14, and 25, and vitality score (VS) was recorded on days 1, 2, 3, 4, and 14. A significant increase in BW and ADWG in Group E-Dexa + VitE/S3 and a significant reduction in Group C-Dexa3 were noticed in comparison to other groups. VS in groups Group B-Dexa1 and Group C-Dexa3 were significantly lower in comparison to other groups. Furthermore, piglets of Group C-Dexa3 had a significantly higher frequency of clinical findings compared to other groups. In conclusion, the administration of Dexa and vitamin E/Se combined after the birth of LBW piglets for 1-3 days has beneficial effects on their growth and survival scores.

Infrared thermography as a possible technique for the estimation of parturition onset in sows

BACKGROUND

This study explores the possibility of using infrared thermography to estimate the onset of parturition in sows. Infrared camera (IRC) and infrared laser thermometer (IRT) were used to obtain the auricular skin temperature of sows along with rectal temperatures, from approximately one week before the anticipated farrowing until 24 h post-partum. Three commercial piglet producing farms were included in the study.

RESULTS

There were large variations in observed auricular skin temperature, both by IRC and IRT per time point. Graphical exploration of the observed auricular skin temperature measured by the two methods showed the same parallel patterns, although temperatures measured by IRC were higher at any time point compared to IRT. Auricular skin thermography revealed a clear increase in temperatures before farrowing. Statistical analyses, adjusting for differences between farms, sow activity and respiration rate, confirmed this increase. When controlling for these variables, and comparing the baseline temperatures to temperatures at farrowing, the difference was 3.9 and 4.1 °C measured with IRT and IRC, respectively. The greatest increase, of more than 2 °C, was found between 16 and 8 h and 8 to 4 h before farrowing. Rectal temperature increased by 0.5 °C in the same time interval and reached a temperature peak after farrowing.

CONCLUSION

Sows showed a more than 2 °C increase in auricular skin temperature, measured by either IRC or IRT, 8 to16 hours before the first piglet was born. Hence, monitoring auricular skin temperatures of sows using infrared thermography one week before expected farrowing may provide a baseline temperature for each sow from which a sudden rise is indicative of parturition in the following 8 to 16 h. This may lead to more efficient allocation of human assistance during farrowing time and thereby improve farrowing management and the welfare of sows and their offspring.

The effect of birth weight and time of day on the thermal response of newborn water buffalo calves

During the 1st days of life, water buffalo calves, especially those with low birth weight, are susceptible to hypothermic mortality due to scarce energy reserves provided by fats. This means that monitoring the thermal state of newborns is essential. The objectives of the present study were to apply infrared thermography (IRT) in 109 buffalo calves to detect differences in the surface temperatures of six thermal windows -lacrimal gland, lacrimal caruncle, periocular region, nostrils, ear canal, pelvic limbs-, and determine their association to birth weight during the first 6 days of life. The calves were divided into four categories according to their weight (Q₁, 37.8-41.25 kg; Q₂, 41.3-46.3 kg; Q₃, 46.4-56.3 kg; Q₄, 56.4-60.3 kg). The thermographic images were recorded in the morning and afternoon. Results showed that the animals in Q₄ registered the highest temperatures in all the thermal windows, and that these were higher in the afternoon (p < 0.0001). When considering the thermal windows, those located in the facial region recorded the highest temperatures; in contrast, the temperatures at the pelvic limbs remained below the average values of the other windows (33.41 and 33.76°C in the morning and afternoon, respectively). According to these results, the birth weight of water buffaloes is a factor that alters their thermoregulation during the 1st days of life, a condition that can be partially compensated by colostrum intake to promote development of an efficient thermoregulatory mechanism in water buffalo calves.

Characteristics of thermal images of the mammary gland and of performance in sows differing in health status and parity

Precision livestock farming can combine sensors and complex data to provide a simple score of meaningful productivity, pig welfare, and farm sustainability, which are the main drivers of modern pig production. Examples include using infrared thermography to monitor the temperature of sows to detect the early stages of the disease. To take account of these drivers, we assigned 697 hybrid (BHZP db. Viktoria) sows to four parity groups. In addition, by pooling clinical findings from every sow and their piglets, sows were classified into three groups for the annotation: healthy, clinically suspicious, and diseased. Besides, the udder was thermographed, and performance data were documented. Results showed that the piglets of diseased sows with eighth or higher parity had the lowest daily weight gain [healthy; 192 g ± 31.2, clinically suspicious; 191 g ± 31.3, diseased; 148 g ± 50.3 (p < 0.05)] and the highest number of stillborn piglets (healthy; 2.2 ± 2.39, clinically suspicious; 2.0 ± 1.62, diseased; 3.91 ± 4.93). Moreover, all diseased sows showed higher maximal skin temperatures by infrared thermography of the udder (p < 0.05). Thus, thermography coupled with Artificial Intelligence (AI) systems can help identify and orient the diagnosis of symptomatic animals to prompt adequate reaction at the earliest time.

Thermography for disease detection in livestock: A scoping review

Infra-red thermography (IRT) offers potential opportunities as a tool for disease detection in livestock. Despite considerable research in this area, there are no common standards or protocols for managing IRT parameters in animal disease detection research. In this review, we investigate parameters that are essential to the progression of this tool and make recommendations for their use based on the literature found and the veterinary thermography guidelines from the American Academy of Thermology. We analyzed a defined set of 109 articles concerned with the use of IRT in livestock related to disease and from these articles, parameters for accurate IRT were identified and sorted into the fields of camera-, animal- or environment-related categories to assess the practices of each article in reporting parameters. This review demonstrates the inconsistencies in practice across peer-reviewed articles and reveals that some important parameters are completely unreported while others are incorrectly captured and/or under-represented in the literature. Further to this, our review highlights the lack of measured emissivity values for live animals in multiple species. We present guidelines for the standards of parameters that should be used and reported in future experiments and discuss potential opportunities and challenges associated with using IRT for disease detection in livestock.

Neonatal infrared thermography images in the hypothermic ruminant model: Anatomical-morphological-physiological aspects and mechanisms for thermoregulation

Hypothermia is one factor associated with mortality in newborn ruminants due to the drastic temperature change upon exposure to the extrauterine environment in the first hours after birth. Ruminants are precocial whose mechanisms for generating heat or preventing heat loss involve genetic characteristics, the degree of neurodevelopment at birth and environmental aspects. These elements combine to form a more efficient mechanism than those found in altricial species. Although the degree of neurodevelopment is an important advantage for these species, their greater mobility helps them to search for the udder and consume colostrum after birth. However, anatomical differences such as the distribution of adipose tissue or the presence of type II muscle fibers could lead to the understanding that these species use their energy resources more efficiently for heat production. The introduction of unconventional ruminant species, such as the water buffalo, has led to rethinking other characteristics like the skin thickness or the coat type that could intervene in the thermoregulation capacity of the newborn. Implementing tools to analyze species-specific characteristics that help prevent a critical decline in temperature is deemed a fundamental strategy for avoiding the adverse effects of a compromised thermoregulatory function. Although thermography is a non-invasive method to assess superficial temperature in several non-human animal species, in newborn ruminants there is limited information about its application, making it necessary to discuss the usefulness of this tool. This review aims to analyze the effects of hypothermia in newborn ruminants, their thermoregulation mechanisms that compensate for this condition, and the application of infrared thermography (IRT) to identify cases with hypothermia.

Neonatal Piglet Temperature Changes: Effect of Intraperitoneal Warm Saline Injection

Piglets are poor at thermoregulation immediately following birth and take up to 24 h to recover from their initial temperature drop. The present study aimed to determine if providing piglets with a 15 mL intraperitoneal injection of warm (45 °C) saline at birth would improve their internal temperature recovery to 24 h of age, and how the treatment interacted with birth weight (BWC = 1; ≤0.80 kg, BWC = 2; 0.81 kg to 1.10 kg, and BWC = 3; >1.10 kg), rectal temperature at 1.5 h (RC = 1; ≤32.0 °C, RC = 2; 32.10 °C to 35.0 °C, and RC = 3; ≥35.10 °C), and colostrum intake (CI = 1; <200 g and CI = 2, ≥200 g) to affect preweaning survival. Treated BWC1 piglets had improved rectal temperatures from 2 to 24 h. BWC3 piglets who consumed insufficient colostrum also had improved rectal temperature between 1 and 24 h post-birth. Colostrum intake was improved with saline injection in BWC2 piglets of RC1 and RC3 (p < 0.001) and BWC3-RC3 piglets (p < 0.001). Treated BWC1 improved survival to 20 d (p < 0.001). Irrespective of BWC, piglets from all RC had greater survival when injected with saline. The greatest difference was for piglets in RC1, likely due to all BWC1 piglets falling within this category. The results suggest that an intraperitoneal injection of warmed saline is an effective way to improve piglet temperature recovery to 24 h, colostrum intake, and survival in low-birth-weight piglets. These findings will be helpful for producers who have large numbers of low-birth-weight piglets born and are able to provide individual care.

Piglet Viability: A Review of Identification and Pre-Weaning Management Strategies

Simple Summary

Neonatal piglet viability is decreasing in concert with the selection for ever-greater numbers of piglets born per sow per year. Their survival depends on the early intervention and management strategies used by production staff. This paper will review current and novel methods used to identify these piglets, some of the factors affecting their viability, and management strategies commonly used within production systems to improve their survival.

Abstract

Increased attention on the effects of the global push for a larger litter size has focused on the increased occurrence of piglets with decreased viability, which have lighter birthweights and a reduced ability to thrive in early life. To improve their odds of survival, interventions must be timely and targeted. This requires the early identification of low-viability pigs and appropriate strategies to manage them. Using novel measures such as abdominal circumference and crown to the rump length in conjunction with birth weight may provide an improved protocol for the identification of those at most risk of preweaning mortality. Further, identifying these at-risk piglets allows interventions to increase their colostrum intake and heat provisions shortly following birth. The appropriate management of the pre- and post-partum sows will improve the chances of decreasing the number of piglets born with lower viability. However, this outcome is constrained by limitations in resources such as technology and staffing. If these challenges can be overcome, it will allow for greater control and increased effectiveness in the implementation of current and new management strategies.

The influence of hypothermia prevention by application of skin moisture absorbent on the value of body temperature, body weight and blood parameters in piglets

ABSTRACT Reducing the mortality rate is of a great economic importance for pig farming. Therefore, it is necessary to define the conditions in the farrowing unit based on the performance of the piglets, and specific hematological and biochemical parameters. Therefore, the aim of this paper is to examine the importance of using skin moisture absorbent and its influence in preventing hypothermia, which causes great economic losses in pig production. The experiment was set up on a commercial farm in Serbia and included 92 pigs divided into the experimental and control group. Body temperature values, body weight and blood parameters were monitored. The obtained values indicate that there is a significantly positive correlation of body temperature change and body weight values, and body temperature showed a significantly higher increase in the experimental group compared to the control group. The results obtained from hematological and biochemical parameters provide a clearer picture of the metabolic processes in piglets in the farrowing unit and can be used to further improve pig production and as a complement to genetic enhancement.

Comparison of diurnal rectal and body surface temperatures in large white piglets during the hot-dry season in a tropical Guinea savannah

The aim of the study was to determine the differences in rectal and body surface temperatures and their extent of conformity using digital and infrared thermometers, respectively, in piglets during the hot-dry season in a tropical guinea savannah of Nigeria. Thirty Large White piglets of both sexes, aged 10-14 days, served as the experimental subjects. The rectal and surface body temperatures were recorded concurrently with those of the ambient dry- and wet-bulbs, during the day at 06:00, 09:00, 12:00, 15:00 and 18:00 h (GMT +1). There were significant (P < 0.05) diurnal variations in all body and ambient temperature readings, with the highest values obtained in the afternoon (at 15:00 h GMT + 1). The mean diurnal rectal and body surface temperatures in the piglets at 09:00-18:00 h were significantly higher (P < 0.001) than the corresponding values at 06:00 h. The overall mean rectal temperature (39.00 ± 0.04 °C) was higher (P < 0.01) than body surface temperature recorded for the eye (38.05 ± 0.04 °C), ear (38.10 ± 0.07 °C), head (37.97 ± 0.05 °C), nose (35.68 ± 0.13 °C), scapula (38.16 ± 0.06 °C), thigh (38.00 ± 0.06 °C), back (38.02 ± 0.06 °C) and hoof (36.83 ± 0.07 °C). The largest and smallest mean difference between rectal and body surface temperatures was -3.32 ± 0.12 °C and -0.84 ± 0.06 °C for the temperature of the nose and scapula, respectively. The positive correlation (P < 0.05) between body temperatures (rectal and surface) of the piglets with ambient temperature implied that the later had a tremendous effect on the former. Body surface temperatures at the region of eye, ear, head, nose, scapula, thigh, back and hoof had significantly (P < 0.0001) linear and positive relationships with rectal temperature. In conclusion, the similar diurnal trends, highly significant correlation coefficients and linear relationships between the rectal and body surface temperatures suggest that the later may serve as valid and reliable estimates of the former in piglets.

Physiological and Behavioral Mechanisms of Thermoregulation in Mammals

This review analyzes the main anatomical structures and neural pathways that allow the generation of autonomous and behavioral mechanisms that regulate body heat in mammals. The study of the hypothalamic neuromodulation of thermoregulation offers broad areas of opportunity with practical applications that are currently being strengthened by the availability of efficacious tools like infrared thermography (IRT). These areas could include the following: understanding the effect of climate change on behavior and productivity; analyzing the effects of exercise on animals involved in sporting activities; identifying the microvascular changes that occur in response to fear, pleasure, pain, and other situations that induce stress in animals; and examining thermoregulating behaviors. This research could contribute substantially to understanding the drastic modification of environments that have severe consequences for animals, such as loss of appetite, low productivity, neonatal hypothermia, and thermal shock, among others. Current knowledge of these physiological processes and complex anatomical structures, like the nervous systems and their close relation to mechanisms of thermoregulation, is still limited. The results of studies in fields like evolutionary neuroscience of thermoregulation show that we cannot yet objectively explain even processes that on the surface seem simple, including behavioral changes and the pathways and connections that trigger mechanisms like vasodilatation and panting. In addition, there is a need to clarify the connection between emotions and thermoregulation that increases the chances of survival of some organisms. An increasingly precise understanding of thermoregulation will allow us to design and apply practical methods in fields like animal science and clinical medicine without compromising levels of animal welfare. The results obtained should not only increase the chances of survival but also improve quality of life and animal production.

Suitability of Different Thermometers for Measuring Body Core and Skin Temperatures in Suckling Piglets

Simple Summary

After birth, piglets’ temperatures usually drop some degrees because of low ambient temperatures in the stable. Piglets have no ability to increase their body temperatures during their first days of life, which can cause health issues if piglets are not appropriately cared for. Monitoring temperatures can, therefore, contribute to reducing impaired wellbeing and unnecessary losses. The most common method for assessing core temperatures is measuring rectally with a digital thermometer. This, however, takes time and requires securing of the animal, which is stressful. Therefore, the aim of this study was to determine whether other thermometers or thermometric devices, such as an infrared camera, can deliver results similar to the digital thermometer. For the measurements in newborn piglets, infrared ear thermometers, infrared forehead thermometers, and infrared laser thermometers were used, as it was assumed that these would deliver results fast and cause little distress in piglets. The results were compared to rectally measured temperatures and it was found that the temperatures measured in-ear correspond to a great extent to rectal temperatures and show little variation between measurements, while the other used devices can only give a rough estimate of the actual core temperatures.

Abstract

Monitoring the temperature of piglets after birth is critical to ensure their well-being. Rectal temperature measurement is time-consuming, requires fixation of the animal and is stressful for piglets. This study aims to evaluate the effectiveness of infrared thermometry and thermography as compared to rectal temperatures. We investigated digital thermometers for rectal measurements, infrared ear thermometers, infrared forehead thermometers, infrared laser thermometers and an infrared camera during field trials with piglets aged 1–13 days. Temperatures differed between the left and right ear and ear base (p < 0.01), but not between temples. Three forehead and laser devices yielded different temperatures (p < 0.01). Temperatures assessed with a laser thermometer decreased with distance from the target (p < 0.01). The highest correlation observed was between the rectal and tympanic temperatures (r = 0.89; p < 0.01). For temperatures assessed with the camera, inner thigh and abdomen correlated most closely to core temperature (0.60 ≤ r ≤ 0.62; p < 0.01). Results indicate that infrared ear thermometry commonly used in humans is also suited for assessing temperature in piglets. The inner thigh and abdomen seem promising locations for estimating core temperature with an infrared camera, but this approach needs to be adapted to reduce time exposure and stress for the piglets to be used under practical conditions.

IoT Technologies for Livestock Management: A Review of Present Status, Opportunities, and Future Trends

The world population currently stands at about 7 billion amidst an expected increase in 2030 from 9.4 billion to around 10 billion in 2050. This burgeoning population has continued to influence the upward demand for animal food. Moreover, the management of finite resources such as land, the need to reduce livestock contribution to greenhouse gases, and the need to manage inherent complex, highly contextual, and repetitive day-to-day livestock management (LsM) routines are some examples of challenges to overcome in livestock production. The Internet of Things (IoT)’s usefulness in other vertical industries (OVI) shows that its role will be significant in LsM. This work uses the systematic review methodology of Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) to guide a review of existing literature on IoT in OVI. The goal is to identify the IoT’s ecosystem, architecture, and its technicalities—present status, opportunities, and expected future trends—regarding its role in LsM. Among identified IoT roles in LsM, the authors found that data will be its main contributor. The traditional approach of reactive data processing will give way to the proactive approach of augmented analytics to provide insights about animal processes. This will undoubtedly free LsM from the drudgery of repetitive tasks with opportunities for improved productivity.

Vitality in relation to litter size of crossbred pigs and the effect of the terminal sire line

Context Most research on sire lines is linked to growth and carcass traits. Only a limited number of field trials explore the effect of sire line on piglet vitality, litter size and the interactions between these traits. Aim The aim of this study was to examine the effect of sire line on the growth performance and vitality of progeny from birth to weaning and to evaluate the lines with respect to their impact on litter size. Methods Data included 150 litters of a Synthetic sire line (A) and 154 of a Piétrain sire line (B), with 4209 piglets born alive, which resulted from matings to 337 dams (Camborough PIC). The numbers of total born and born alive piglets per litter were recorded. Within 24 h after birth, piglet individual birthweight (BWbirth), sex (male/female) and body temperature (BT) were also recorded. At weaning, mortality rates and weaned pigs per sow were registered. At the day of weaning, 665 randomly chosen pigs were individually weighed. Weaning weights (WW) were used to calculate the weaning average daily gain (WADG). Key results Sire line significantly affected number of total born (P &lt; 0.0001), number born alive (P &lt; 0.01) and number of weaned pigs per sow (P &lt; 0.01). Across lines, each additional piglet per litter resulted in a 31.2 g decline in BWbirth (P &lt; 0.001). Larger litter sizes, higher BWbirth (P &lt; 0.01) and piglets with a lower BT (P &lt; 0.0001) were detected in litters of Sire line B compared with litters of Sire line A. No differences between lines were detected for WADG, WW and pre-weaning mortality (P &gt; 0.05). A positive correlation between birthweight and WW resulted in a correspondingly higher WADG (P &lt; 0.0001). Overall, heavier BWbirth piglets had a higher BT (P &lt; 0.0001). Conclusions The present study indicates that Sire line B would offer a possibility to maintain litter size at a high level and, simultaneously, achieve higher BWbirth, with consequently more vital piglets. Implication It is important to emphasise that further selection for litter size in dam lines is not indicated in terms of animal welfare but also production efficiency. Instead, it seems feasible to follow the above strategy and stabilise litter size at a high level, while at the same time breeding for vitality and survivability in sire lines.

Effect of method of drying piglets at birth on rectal temperature over the first 24 h after birth

Piglets are born wet, and evaporation of that moisture decreases body temperature, increasing the risk of mortality. The objective of this study was to compare the effect of two commercially applicable methods for drying piglets at birth on piglet rectal temperature over 24 h after birth. The study was carried out in standard commercial farrowing facilities with 52 litters, using a completely randomized design with three Drying Treatments: Control (not dried); Desiccant (dried at birth using a cellulose-based desiccant); Paper Towel (dried at birth using paper towels). Litters were randomly allotted to treatments at the birth of the first piglet. At birth, piglets were individually identified, and the treatment was applied. Rectal temperature was measured at 0, 10, 20, 30, 45, 60, 120, and 1,440 min (24 h) after birth. Data were analyzed using a repeated measures model with PROC MIXED of SAS, with litter as the experimental unit and piglet a subsample of the litter. The model included the fixed effects of treatment and time (as a repeated measure), and the interaction. There was no effect (P > 0.05) of treatment on temperature at birth, or 10 or 1,440 min after birth. Piglet temperatures between 20 and 120 min after birth were similar (P > 0.05) for the Desiccant and Paper Towel treatments, but were greater (P ≤ 0.05) than the Control. The effect of birth weight on the response to Drying Treatment was evaluated by dividing the data into Light (<1.0 kg), Medium (1.0 to 1.5 kg), or Heavy (>1.5 kg) piglet Birth Weight Categories. Piglet rectal temperature data at each measurement time were analyzed using a model that included the fixed effects of Birth Weight Category, Drying Treatment, and the interaction. Temperatures of Light piglets were lower (P ≤ 0.05) than those of Heavy piglets between 20 and 120 min after birth, with Medium piglets being intermediate and generally different to the other two weight categories at these times. The difference in temperature between Light as compared with Medium or Heavy piglets was greater for the Control than the other two Drying Treatments at 60 min after birth. These results suggest that drying piglets at birth is an effective method to reduce rectal temperature decline in the early postnatal period, especially for low birth weight piglets.

Physiological responses of pigs to preslaughter handling: infrared and thermal imaging applications

Loading, transport, unloading, lairage and stunning are the principle ante-mortem events that generate negative responses associated with stress in pigs. For this reason, it is important to verify the condition of animals throughout the supply chain in order to ensure their welfare and obtain, at the end of the slaughtering process, high-quality carcases and meat. Several studies have identified the indicators and samples that need to be taken into account to properly measure and evaluate the responses that these animals emit to the stressors involved. However, these procedures must be carried out quickly and by non-invasive means so as not to impede the flow of animals through the operations of loading, transport, unloading and lairage. Therefore, the objective of this review article is to analyse the stressful events that pigs experience during these events and discuss the use of the infrared thermography (IRT) as an alternative tool for measuring stress based on temperature changes on the surface of pigs’ skin. We argue that infrared thermography can be used as a strategy to improve animal welfare during loading, transport, unloading and lairage by preventing fatigue and deaths, and decreasing negative impacts on meat quality, such as pale, soft and exudative (PSE), or dark, firm and dry (DFD) conditions.

Non-Contact Evaluation of Pigs' Body Temperature Incorporating Environmental Factors

Internal body temperature is the gold standard for the fever of pigs, however non-contact infrared imaging technology (IRT) can only measure the skin temperature of regions of interest (ROI). Therefore, using IRT to detect the internal body temperature should be based on a correlation model between the ROI temperature and the internal temperature. When heat exchange between the ROI and the surroundings makes the ROI temperature more correlated with the environment, merely depending on the ROI to predict the internal temperature is unreliable. To ensure a high prediction accuracy, this paper investigated the influence of air temperature and humidity on ROI temperature, then built a prediction model incorporating them. The animal test includes 18 swine. IRT was employed to collect the temperatures of the backside, eye, vulva, and ear root ROIs; meanwhile, the air temperature and humidity were recorded. Body temperature prediction models incorporating environmental factors and the ROI temperature were constructed based on Back Propagate Neural Net (BPNN), Random Forest (RF), and Support Vector Regression (SVR). All three models yielded better results regarding the maximum error, minimum error, and mean square error (MSE) when the environmental factors were considered. When environmental factors were incorporated, SVR produced the best outcome, with the maximum error at 0.478 °C, the minimum error at 0.124 °C, and the MSE at 0.159 °C. The result demonstrated the accuracy and applicability of SVR as a prediction model of pigs′ internal body temperature.

Practical oxygen therapy for newborn piglets

Aims: To evaluate the effect of a novel method of practical oxygen therapy on physiological parameters related to survival, weaning weight and preweaning mortality of neonatal piglets under commercial farm conditions. Methods: Piglets from hyperprolific sows born with signs of asphyxia, (n = 109; <6 on a score of respiration, meconium staining and activity) or very low birth weight (VLBW; n = 112; <1.05 kg) were selected for the study. Approximately half of each group (n = 55 VLBW piglets and n = 57 piglets with asphyxia) received 100% oxygen immediately after birth using a specially designed facemask for 45 seconds (VLBW) or 1 minute (asphyxiated). Physiological parameters (peripheral blood oxygen saturation (SpO₂) blood glucose concentration and rectal temperature) were measured before oxygen treatment 5 minutes after birth (SpO₂) and 24 hours later (SpO₂, blood glucose concentration, temperature). Weight at birth, at 24 hours and at 21 days of age, preweaning mortality, and estimated colostrum intake were also recorded. Results: A significant treatment effect on SpO₂ was observed (p = 0.013 and p < 0.001 for VLBW and asphyxiated piglets respectively). VLBW and asphyxiated piglets that received oxygen treatment had higher SpO₂ after treatment (measured 5 minutes after birth, 97.7 and 97.8% respectively) compared to immediately after birth (93.3 and 86.8% respectively) while untreated piglets showed no variation. Blood glucose concentrations increased in all piglets between birth and 24 hours of age (p = 0.003 and p < 0.001 for asphyxiated and VLBW piglets respectively) and this was higher in asphyxiated piglets that received oxygen than those that did not (5.6 (SE 0.2) mmol/L; p < 0.05). Estimated colostrum intake was higher in asphyxiated (401.6 (SD 24.4) g/kg) and VLBW (374.9 (SE 23.4 g/kg) piglets that received oxygen than those that did not (273.2 (SE 24.1) g/kg; p < 0.001 and 249.0 (SE 22.5) g/kg; p < 0.001 respectively). Similarly weight at weaning was higher in asphyxiated (5.8 (SE 0.2) kg) and VLBW (4.9 (SE 0.2) kg) piglets that received oxygen therapy than control animals (4.9 (SE 0.2) kg; = 0.005 and 4.1 (SE 0.2) kg; p = 0.008 respectively). Furthermore, oxygen treatment markedly reduced preweaning mortality from 9/52 (17%) untreated to 1/57 (1.7%) oxygen-treated piglets suffering asphyxia at birth (p = 0.006). Conclusions: Oxygen therapy improves physiological and productive parameters in piglets born with signs of asphyxia or VLBW. The incorporation of this strategy as part of the farrowing routine enhances the advantages of rearing hyperprolific sows.

Impact of sow lactation feed intake on the growth and suckling behavior of low and average birthweight pigs to 10 weeks of age

Improved genetics in commercial pig production have resulted in larger litter sizes. However this has increased the prevalence of compromised pigs exhibiting inferior birthweights, weaning weights, and lifetime performance. This study aimed to determine the effects of increased sow lactation feed intake on growth of low and average birthweight piglets until 10 wk of age. Low (Low BW; <1 kg) and average (Av BW; 1.3–1.7 kg) birthweight animals were reared in uniformly weighted litters comprising 14 piglets on a foster mother offered either a low (Low FA; max 7.5 kg/d) or high (High FA; max 11 kg/d) feed allowance over a 28- ± 1-d lactation. Piglet performance was monitored from birth until 10 wk of age. Sows offered a High FA consumed 42.4 kg more feed on average than those offered Low FA, resulting in a greater derived milk yield (P < 0.05). Animals of Av BW remained heavier than Low BW pigs throughout the trial (P < 0.05). Piglets reared by High FA sows were heavier at weeks 3, 4, 5, and 7 (P < 0.05) but not week 10 (P > 0.05). Growth rate of piglets relative to their birthweight was significantly greater for Low BW piglets than those of Av BW during lactation (P < 0.001). Piglets reared by sows offered a High FA expressed greater relative growth preweaning (P < 0.05); however, postweaning relative growth for piglets reared on sows offered a Low FA was greater (P < 0.05) suggesting compensatory growth. Neither birthweight nor sow feed allowance significantly affected preweaning mortality (P > 0.05). However, Low BW animals on sows with a High FA recorded half the preweaning mortality of Low BW pigs on sows with a Low FA. During week 1 of lactation, Av BW litters recorded a greater total suckling duration compared to Low BW litters (P < 0.05) but there was no difference in suckling frequency (P > 0.05). During week 3 of lactation, High FA litters displayed a significantly lower suckling frequency (P < 0.05) yet a greater total suckling duration (P < 0.001). Average daily gain was greater for Av BW pigs during weeks 4–7 (P < 0.001) but no difference was recorded between weeks 7 and 10 (P > 0.05). Average daily feed intake was greater for Av BW pigs throughout the nursery period (P < 0.05) but feed–conversion ratio did not differ compared to Low BW pens (P>0.05). In conclusion, offering sows a High FA increased weaning weight of all animals; however, birthweight was the major determinant of postweaning performance.

Are Larger Litters a Concern for Piglet Survival or an Effectively Manageable Trait?

As sows continue to be selected for greater prolificacy, it is important to review problems that arise in larger litters, and whether these issues can be appropriately managed. Although a proportion of piglets in larger litters can be born underweight, proper supervision around farrowing and adequate colostrum intake has the potential to improve the survival of low-birth-weight piglets and their ongoing growth to weaning. As larger litters can impart greater stress and discomfort on sows, implementing a low-stress environment leading up to parturition may improve sow performance and subsequent survival of piglets. Additionally, treating sows with anti-inflammatory compounds, either dietary or pharmacologically, shows some promise for alleviating sow discomfort and improving piglet survival in larger litters. Understanding that selecting sows for larger litters not only affects piglet survival but the well-being of the sow, the decision to continue selecting for larger litters, regardless of management strategies, remains a topic of ethical concern.

L-arginine supplementation during the final third of gestation improves litter uniformity and physical characteristics of neonatal piglet thermoregulation

The study assessed the effects of dietary L-arginine supplementation from days 85 to 115 of gestation on sow performance, litter quality, piglet physiology and survival variables in the first 24 hr of life. Twenty multiparous sows, with a history of hyperprolificacy (more than 14 piglets per litter), were used. A completely randomized experimental design was used, consisting of two treatments: feed supplemented or not with 1% L-arginine from days 85 to 115 of gestation. The experimental unit consisted of the sow and its respective litter, using 10 replicates per treatment. The sows were distributed into the treatments based on body condition and parity. Supplementation with L-arginine reduced the within-litter standard deviation and the within-litter coefficient of variation of piglet weight at 24 hr by 54 g and 4.14 percentage points respectively (p = .029; p = .035). Supplementation with 1.0% L-arginine decreased the percentages of piglets weighing less than 800 g by 5.60 and 5.08 points at birth and at 24 hr of life respectively. Piglets from sows supplemented with L-arginine had higher (p = .088) average rectal temperatures at birth and lower (p = .030) rectal temperature at 24 hr of life in comparison with control piglets. No significant differences in placental weight or estimated colostrum production and intake were observed in the first 24 hr of life. At 24 hr of life, piglets weighing less than 1,000 g and from supplemented sows had lower (p = .048) surface/mass ratios and higher body mass index (p = .070). Piglets from supplemented sows and who weighed 1601 to 1,800 g had lower body mass index and ponderal index (p = .002; p = .003). Supplementation with L-arginine during the final third of gestation reduces the incidence of unviable piglets (<800 g) and improved litter uniformity and piglets' body conformation within the first 24 hr of life.

Blood glucose, amino acid profiles and nutrient transporter gene expressions in the small intestine of low and normal birthweight piglets during the early suckling period

Birthweight and age can play a role in adaptational changes in plasma levels of glucose and amino acids by regulating the intestinal expression of specific nutrients transporters in piglets. The aim of the present study was to compare hematological features, circulating levels of glucose and amino acids, and small intestinal gene expression for transporters for glucose (SGLT1, GLUT2), amino acids (LAT2, b^0,+AT) and peptides (PepT1) between low birthweight (LBW) and normal birthweight (NBW) piglets at birth prior to suckling and day 7 after birth. A secondary aim was to evaluate correlations between circulating levels of glucose or amino acids and their transporters. There were significant age-dependent changes in the immune cell repertoire in the circulating blood (P<0.004). Blood glucose levels were lower in LBW piglets than in NBW piglets (P<0.05); in both birthweight groups, blood glucose increased with age. Plasma concentrations of histidine, isoleucine, proline and tryptophan showed significant changes with age (P<0.003). With regard to mRNA levels for the nutrient transporters, there were no differences between the two birthweight groups or between the two age groups. At day 7 postpartum, intestinal expression of SGLT1 or GLUT2 mRNA did not correlate with blood glucose level. Expression of LAT2 mRNA in the ileum correlated positively with plasma level of methionine (r=0.92, P<0.001). This is the first detailed analysis of hematological features, plasma glucose and amino acid levels, and nutrient transporter expression in LBW and NBW piglets during the early suckling period.