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Curto MÁ, Butassi E, Ribas JC, Svetaz LA, Cortés JCG. Natural products targeting the synthesis of β(1,3)-D-glucan and chitin of the fungal cell wall. Existing drugs and recent findings. PHYTOMEDICINE : INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PHYTOTHERAPY AND PHYTOPHARMACOLOGY 2021; 88:153556. [PMID: 33958276 DOI: 10.1016/j.phymed.2021.153556] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2021] [Revised: 03/12/2021] [Accepted: 03/21/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND During the last three decades systemic fungal infections associated to immunosuppressive therapies have become a serious healthcare problem. Clinical development of new antifungals is an urgent requirement. Since fungal but not mammalian cells are encased in a carbohydrate-containing cell wall, which is required for the growth and viability of fungi, the inhibition of cell wall synthesizing machinery, such as β(1,3)-D-glucan synthases (GS) and chitin synthases (CS) that catalyze the synthesis of β(1-3)-D-glucan and chitin, respectively, represent an ideal mode of action of antifungal agents. Although the echinocandins anidulafungin, caspofungin and micafungin are clinically well-established GS inhibitors for the treatment of invasive fungal infections, much effort must still be made to identify inhibitors of other enzymes and processes involved in the synthesis of the fungal cell wall. PURPOSE Since natural products (NPs) have been the source of several antifungals in clinical use and also have provided important scaffolds for the development of semisynthetic analogues, this review was devoted to investigate the advances made to date in the discovery of NPs from plants that showed capacity of inhibiting cell wall synthesis targets. The chemical characterization, specific target, discovery process, along with the stage of development are provided here. METHODS An extensive systematic search for NPs against the cell wall was performed considering all the articles published until the end of 2020 through the following scientific databases: NCBI PubMed, Scopus and Google Scholar and using the combination of the terms "natural antifungals" and "plant extracts" with "fungal cell wall". RESULTS The first part of this review introduces the state of the art of the structure and biosynthesis of the fungal cell wall and considers exclusively those naturally produced GS antifungals that have given rise to both existing semisynthetic approved drugs and those derivatives currently in clinical trials. According to their chemical structure, natural GS inhibitors can be classified as 1) cyclic lipopeptides, 2) glycolipids and 3) acidic terpenoids. We also included nikkomycins and polyoxins, NPs that inhibit the CS, which have traditionally been considered good candidates for antifungal drug development but have finally been discarded after enduring unsuccessful clinical trials. Finally, the review focuses in the most recent findings about the growing field of plant-derived molecules and extracts that exhibit activity against the fungal cell wall. Thus, this search yielded sixteen articles, nine of which deal with pure compounds and seven with plant extracts or fractions with proven activity against the fungal cell wall. Regarding the mechanism of action, seven (44%) produced GS inhibition while five (31%) inhibited CS. Some of them (56%) interfered with other components of the cell wall. Most of the analyzed articles refer to tests carried out in vitro and therefore are in early stages of development. CONCLUSION This report delivers an overview about both existing natural antifungals targeting GS and CS activities and their mechanisms of action. It also presents recent discoveries on natural products that may be used as starting points for the development of potential selective and non-toxic antifungal drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Ángeles Curto
- Instituto de Biología Funcional y Genómica and Departamento de Microbiología y Genética, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC)/Universidad de Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain
| | - Estefanía Butassi
- Área Farmacognosia, Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas, Universidad Nacional de Rosario, Suipacha 531, 2000 Rosario, Argentina
| | - Juan C Ribas
- Instituto de Biología Funcional y Genómica and Departamento de Microbiología y Genética, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC)/Universidad de Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain
| | - Laura A Svetaz
- Área Farmacognosia, Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas, Universidad Nacional de Rosario, Suipacha 531, 2000 Rosario, Argentina.
| | - Juan C G Cortés
- Instituto de Biología Funcional y Genómica and Departamento de Microbiología y Genética, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC)/Universidad de Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain.
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Liu W, Yuan L, Wang S. Recent Progress in the Discovery of Antifungal Agents Targeting the Cell Wall. J Med Chem 2020; 63:12429-12459. [PMID: 32692166 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.0c00748] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Due to the limit of available treatments and the emergence of drug resistance in the clinic, invasive fungal infections are an intractable problem with high morbidity and mortality. The cell wall, as a fungi-specific structure, is an appealing target for the discovery and development of novel and low-toxic antifungal agents. In an attempt to accelerate the discovery of novel cell wall targeted drugs, this Perspective will provide a comprehensive review of the progress made to date on the development of fungal cell wall inhibitors. Specifically, this review will focus on the targets, discovery process, chemical structures, antifungal activities, and structure-activity relationships. Although two types of cell wall antifungal agents are clinically available or in clinical trials, it is still a long way for the other cell wall targeted inhibitors to be translated into clinical applications. Future efforts should be focused on the identification of inhibitors against novel conserved cell wall targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Liu
- Faculty of Pharmacy, School of Food and Biological Engineering, Shaanxi University of Science and Technology, Xuefu Middle Road, Xi'an 710021, People's Republic of China
| | - Lin Yuan
- Faculty of Pharmacy, School of Food and Biological Engineering, Shaanxi University of Science and Technology, Xuefu Middle Road, Xi'an 710021, People's Republic of China
| | - Shengzheng Wang
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Analysis, School of Pharmacy, Fourth Military Medical University, 169 Changle West Road, Xi'an 710032, People's Republic of China
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Gillard RM, Brimble MA. Benzannulated spiroketal natural products: isolation, biological activity, biosynthesis, and total synthesis. Org Biomol Chem 2019; 17:8272-8307. [DOI: 10.1039/c9ob01598a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
A review discussing the isolation, biological activity, biosynthesis, and total synthesis of naturally occurring benzannulated spiroketals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel M. Gillard
- School of Chemical Sciences
- The University of Auckland
- Auckland
- New Zealand
| | - Margaret A. Brimble
- School of Chemical Sciences
- The University of Auckland
- Auckland
- New Zealand
- Maurice Wilkins Centre for Molecular Biodiscovery
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Karmakar R, Pahari P, Mal D. Phthalides and Phthalans: Synthetic Methodologies and Their Applications in the Total Synthesis. Chem Rev 2014; 114:6213-84. [DOI: 10.1021/cr400524q] [Citation(s) in RCA: 249] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Raju Karmakar
- Department
of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur 721302, India
- Technical University of Braunschweig, 38106 Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Pallab Pahari
- Department
of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur 721302, India
- Synthetic
Organic Chemistry Division, CSIR-North East Institute of Science and Technology, Jorhat 785006, Assam, India
| | - Dipakranjan Mal
- Department
of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur 721302, India
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van der Kaaden M, Breukink E, Pieters RJ. Synthesis and antifungal properties of papulacandin derivatives. Beilstein J Org Chem 2012; 8:732-7. [PMID: 23015820 PMCID: PMC3388860 DOI: 10.3762/bjoc.8.82] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2012] [Accepted: 04/24/2012] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Derivatives of an antifungal agent that targets the β-(1,3)-D-glucan synthase, papulacandin D, were synthesized and tested for activity. The papulacandin D structure contains a challenging benzannulated spiroketal unit, which is introduced in a palladium-catalyzed cross-coupling reaction of a glycal silanolate and an aryl iodide followed by an oxidative spiroketalization. Four different variants were made, differing in the nature of the acyl side chain with respect to the length, and in the number and stereochemistry of the double bonds. Moderate biological activity was observed for the derivatives with a side chain based on palmitic acid and linoleic acid.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marjolein van der Kaaden
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Chemical Biology. Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Utrecht University, P.O. Box 80082, 3508 TB Utrecht, The Netherlands
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Mainkar PS, Johny K, Prabhakar Rao T, Chandrasekhar S. Synthesis of O-Spiro-C-Aryl Glycosides Using Organocatalysis. J Org Chem 2012; 77:2519-25. [DOI: 10.1021/jo202353r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Prathama S. Mainkar
- Division
of Natural Products Chemistry and ‡Centre for NMR and Structural Chemistry, CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, 500 007, India
| | - Kancharla Johny
- Division
of Natural Products Chemistry and ‡Centre for NMR and Structural Chemistry, CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, 500 007, India
| | - Tadikamalla Prabhakar Rao
- Division
of Natural Products Chemistry and ‡Centre for NMR and Structural Chemistry, CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, 500 007, India
| | - Srivari Chandrasekhar
- Division
of Natural Products Chemistry and ‡Centre for NMR and Structural Chemistry, CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, 500 007, India
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Total Synthesis of Papulacandin D. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-386540-3.00005-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register]
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Abstract
A total synthesis of (+)-papulacandin D has been achieved in 31 steps, in a 9.2% overall yield from commercially available materials. The synthetic strategy divided the molecule into two nearly equal sized subunits, the spirocyclic C-arylglycopyranoside and the polyunsaturated fatty acid side chain. The C-arylglycopyranoside was prepared in 11 steps in a 30% overall yield from triacetoxyglucal. The fatty acid side chain was also prepared in 11 steps in a 30% overall yield from geraniol. The key strategic transformations in the synthesis are: (1) a palladium-catalyzed, organosilanolate-based cross-coupling reaction of a dimethylglucal-silanol with an electron rich and sterically hindered aromatic iodide and (2) a Lewis base-catalyzed, enantioselective allylation reaction of a dienal and allyltrichlorosilane. A critical element in the successful execution of the synthesis was the development of a suitable protecting group strategy that satisfied a number of stringent criteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Scott E. Denmark
- Roger Adams Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL 61801
| | - Tetsuya Kobayashi
- Roger Adams Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL 61801
| | - Christopher S. Regens
- Roger Adams Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL 61801
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Gooday GW. Section Review: Anti-infectives: The potential of novel antifungal drugs for the treatment of disease in the immunocompromised host. Expert Opin Investig Drugs 2008. [DOI: 10.1517/13543784.4.8.679] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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Ahmed MM, O’Doherty GA. De novo synthesis of a galacto-papulacandin moiety via an iterative dihydroxylation strategy. Tetrahedron Lett 2005. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tetlet.2005.04.073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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Nam NH, Sardari S, Selecky M, Parang K. Carboxylic acid and phosphate ester derivatives of fluconazole: synthesis and antifungal activities. Bioorg Med Chem 2004; 12:6255-69. [PMID: 15519168 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2004.08.049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2004] [Revised: 08/27/2004] [Accepted: 08/27/2004] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Two classes of fluconazole derivatives, (a) carboxylic acid esters and (b) fatty alcohol and carbohydrate phosphate esters, were synthesized and evaluated in vitro against Cryptococcus neoformans, Candida albicans, and Aspergillus niger. All carboxylic acid ester derivatives of fluconazole (1a-l), such as O-2-bromooctanoylfluconazole (1g, MIC=111 microg/mL) and O-11-bromoundecanoylfluconazole (1j, MIC=198 microg/mL), exhibited higher antifungal activity than fluconazole (MIC > or = 4444 microg/mL) against C. albicans ATCC 14053 in SDB medium. Several fatty alcohol phosphate triester derivatives of fluconazole, such as 2a, 2b, 2f, 2g, and 2h, exhibited enhanced antifungal activities against C. albicans and/or A. niger compared to fluconazole in SDB medium. For example, 2-cyanoethyl-omega-undecylenyl fluconazole phosphate (2b) with MIC value of 122 microg/mL had at least 36 times greater antifungal activity than fluconazole against C. albicans in SDB medium. Methyl-undecanyl fluconazole phosphate (2f) with a MIC value of 190 microg/mL was at least 3-fold more potent than fluconazole against A. niger ATCC 16404. All compounds had higher estimated lipophilicity and dermal permeability than those for fluconazole. These results demonstrate the potential of these antifungal agents for further development as sustained-release topical antifungal chemotherapeutic agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nguyen-Hai Nam
- Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Rhode Island, 41 Lower College Road, Kingston, RI 02881, USA
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Abstract
The vast number and variety of chemotherapeutic agents isolated from microbial natural products and used to treat bacterial infections have greatly contributed to the improvement of human health during the past century. However, only a limited number of antifungal agents (polyenes and azoles, plus the recently introduced caspofungin acetate) are currently available for the treatment of life-threatening fungal infections. Furthermore, the prevalence of systemic fungal infections has increased significantly during the past decade. For this reason, the development of new antifungal agents, preferably with novel mechanisms of action, is an urgent medical need. A selection of antifungal agents in early stages of development, produced by micro-organisms, is summarized in this review. The compounds are classified according to their mechanisms of action, covering inhibitors of the synthesis of cell wall components (glucan, chitin and mannoproteins), of sphingolipid synthesis (serine palmitoyltransferase, ceramide synthase, inositol phosphoceramide synthase and fatty acid elongation) and of protein synthesis (sordarins). In addition, some considerations related to the chemotaxonomy of the producing organisms and some issues relevant to antifungal drug discovery are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- M F Vicente
- Centro de Investigacíon Básica, Merck Research Laboratories, Merck, Sharp and Dohme España, S. A. Josefa Valcárcel 38, 28027 Madrid, Spain.
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Kurtz MB, Rex JH. Glucan synthase inhibitors as antifungal agents. ADVANCES IN PROTEIN CHEMISTRY 2001; 56:423-75. [PMID: 11329859 DOI: 10.1016/s0065-3233(01)56011-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- M B Kurtz
- Merck Research Laboratories, R80Y-220, Infectious Diseases, P.O. Box 2000, Rahway, NJ 07065, USA
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Balachari D, O'Doherty GA. Enantioselective synthesis of the papulacandin ring system: conversion of the mannose diastereoisomer into a glucose stereoisomer. Org Lett 2000; 2:4033-6. [PMID: 11112636 DOI: 10.1021/ol006662a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
[structure] An enantioselective synthesis of three diastereoisomers of the C-arylglycoside tricyclic spiroketal nucleus of the papulacandins has been achieved, in which the initial asymmetry was introduced via a Sharpless dihydroxylation of substituted 5-aryl-2-vinylfurans. A selective oxidation-reduction sequence converted the mannose isomer into the glucose isomer. This sequence can conveniently produce both the papulacandin ring system along with its enantiomer and diastereomers in only 10-14 steps from 3,5-dimethoxybenzyl alcohol in 5-8% overall yield.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Balachari
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, USA
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Balachari D, O'Doherty GA. Sharpless asymmetric dihydroxylation of 5-aryl-2-vinylfurans: application to the synthesis of the spiroketal moiety of papulacandin D. Org Lett 2000; 2:863-6. [PMID: 10754689 DOI: 10.1021/ol0000253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
[formula: see text] Using the Sharpless catalytic asymmetric dihydroxylation reaction on 5-aryl-2-vinylfurans, diols are produced in high enantioexcess. The resulting diols can be efficiently transformed into the spiroketal ring precursor of the antifungal compound papulacandin D. Stereoselective reduction of this precursor followed by a diastereoselective dihydroxylation completes the synthesis of a mannopyranoside isomer of a papulacandin derivative.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Balachari
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis 55455, USA
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