Synaptic activity regulates AMPA receptor trafficking through different recycling pathways

Loss of the proton-activated chloride channel in neurons impairs AMPA receptor endocytosis and LTD via endosomal hyper-acidification

Hippocampal long-term potentiation (LTP) and long-term depression (LTD) are forms of synaptic plasticity, thought to be the molecular basis of learning and memory, dependent on dynamic α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid receptor (AMPAR) trafficking. Alteration of endosomal pH negatively affects synaptic transmission and neural development, but it is unclear how pH is involved in AMPAR trafficking. We show that the proton-activated chloride (PAC) channel localizes to early and recycling endosomes in neurons and prevents endosome hyper-acidification. Loss of PAC reduces AMPAR endocytosis during chemical LTD in primary neurons, while basal trafficking and LTP are unaffected. Pyramidal neuron-specific PAC knockout mice have impaired hippocampal LTD, but not LTP, and perform poorly in the Morris water maze reversal test, exhibiting impaired behavioral adaptation. We conclude that proper maintenance of endosomal pH by PAC in neurons is important during LTD to regulate AMPAR trafficking in a manner critical for animal physiology and behavior.

Loss of SynDIG4/PRRT1 alters distribution of AMPA receptors in Rab4- and Rab11-positive endosomes and impairs basal AMPA receptor recycling

The transmembrane protein Synapse Differentiation Induced Gene 4 (SynDIG4) functions as an auxiliary factor of AMPA receptors (AMPARs) and plays a critical role in excitatory synapse plasticity as well as hippocampal-dependent learning and memory. Mice lacking SynDIG4 have reduced surface expression of GluA1 and GluA2 and are impaired in single tetanus-induced long-term potentiation and NMDA receptor (NMDAR)-dependent long-term depression. These findings suggest that SynDIG4 may play an important role in regulating AMPAR distribution through intracellular trafficking mechanisms; however, the precise roles by which SynDIG4 governs AMPAR distribution remain unclear. In this study, we characterized the endocytosis and recycling of GluA1-containing AMPARs under basal conditions. We did not observe any change in baseline endocytosis; however, we did observe a significant decrease in recycling of GluA1-containing AMPARs in cultured hippocampal neurons from mice lacking SynDIG4. This resulted in a significant increase in the levels of internal GluA1 and GluA2, along with greater colocalization of these subunits with Rab4-positive recycling endosomes in hippocampal neurons lacking SynDIG4. Notably, the overlap between Rab4- and Rab11-positive vesicles was elevated in hippocampal neurons lacking SynDIG4, suggesting an impairment in the trafficking between Rab4 and Rab11 compartments. Furthermore, our findings revealed a reduction in surface GluA1 within synaptic regions of hippocampal neurons lacking SynDIG4. Collectively, these results indicate that SynDIG4 regulates the distribution of GluA1-containing AMPARs via the Rab4-dependent endosomal recycling pathway, thereby maintaining AMPAR levels at synaptic regions under baseline conditions. This regulatory function of SynDIG4 may contribute to the deficits in GluA1-dependent synaptic plasticity and impairment of hippocampal-dependent learning and memory behaviors observed in SynDIG4 deficient mice.

The Role of Extracellular Vesicles and Microparticles in Central Nervous System Disorders: Mechanisms, Biomarkers, and Therapeutic Potential

Microscopic, membranous vesicles known as extracellular vesicles (EVs) have been proposed to play a role in the mechanisms underlying central nervous system (CNS) diseases. EVs are secreted by a variety of cells, including myeloid, endothelial, microglial, oligodendroglial, and mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs). Body fluids such as plasma, urine, and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) contain microparticles (MPs). The detection of MPs in CSF may indicate genetic or environmental susceptibility to conditions such as schizophrenia, schizoaffective disorder, and bipolar disorder. MPs of different origins can exhibit changes in specific biomarkers at various stages of the disease, aiding in the diagnosis and monitoring of neurological conditions. However, understanding the role and clinical applications of MPs is complicated by challenges such as their isolation and dual roles within the CNS. In this review, we discuss the history, characteristics, and roles of MPs in CNS diseases. We also provide practical insights for future research and highlight the challenges that obscure the therapeutic potential of MPs.

G272V and P301L Mutations Induce Isoform Specific Tau Mislocalization to Dendritic Spines and Synaptic Dysfunctions in Cellular Models of 3R and 4R Tau Frontotemporal Dementia

Tau pathologies are detected in the brains of some of the most common neurodegenerative diseases including Alzheimer's disease (AD), Lewy body dementia (LBD), chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE), and frontotemporal dementia (FTD). Tau proteins are expressed in six isoforms with either three or four microtubule-binding repeats (3R tau or 4R tau) due to alternative RNA splicing. AD, LBD, and CTE brains contain pathological deposits of both 3R and 4R tau. FTD patients can exhibit either 4R tau pathologies in most cases or 3R tau pathologies less commonly in Pick's disease, which is a subfamily of FTD. Here, we report the isoform-specific roles of tau in FTD. The P301L mutation, linked to familial 4R tau FTD, induces mislocalization of 4R tau to dendritic spines in primary hippocampal cultures that were prepared from neonatal rat pups of both sexes. Contrastingly, the G272V mutation, linked to familial Pick's disease, induces phosphorylation-dependent mislocalization of 3R tau but not 4R tau proteins to dendritic spines. The overexpression of G272V 3R tau but not 4R tau proteins leads to the reduction of dendritic spine density and suppression of mEPSCs in 5-week-old primary rat hippocampal cultures. The decrease in mEPSC amplitude caused by G272V 3R tau is dynamin-dependent whereas that caused by P301L 4R tau is dynamin-independent, indicating that the two tau isoforms activate different signaling pathways responsible for excitatory synaptic dysfunction. Our 3R and 4R tau studies here will shed new light on diverse mechanisms underlying FTD, AD, LBD, and CTE.

A centronuclear myopathy-causing mutation in dynamin-2 disrupts neuronal morphology and excitatory synaptic transmission in a murine model of the disease

AIMS

Dynamin-2 is a large GTPase, a member of the dynamin superfamily that regulates membrane remodelling and cytoskeleton dynamics. Mutations in the dynamin-2 gene (DNM2) cause autosomal dominant centronuclear myopathy (CNM), a congenital neuromuscular disorder characterised by progressive weakness and atrophy of the skeletal muscles. Cognitive defects have been reported in some DNM2-linked CNM patients suggesting that these mutations can also affect the central nervous system (CNS). Here we studied how a dynamin-2 CNM-causing mutation influences the CNS function.

METHODS

Heterozygous mice harbouring the p.R465W mutation in the dynamin-2 gene (HTZ), the most common causing autosomal dominant CNM, were used as disease model. We evaluated dendritic arborisation and spine density in hippocampal cultured neurons, analysed excitatory synaptic transmission by electrophysiological field recordings in hippocampal slices, and evaluated cognitive function by performing behavioural tests.

RESULTS

HTZ hippocampal neurons exhibited reduced dendritic arborisation and lower spine density than WT neurons, which was reversed by transfecting an interference RNA against the dynamin-2 mutant allele. Additionally, HTZ mice showed defective hippocampal excitatory synaptic transmission and reduced recognition memory compared to the WT condition.

CONCLUSION

Our findings suggest that the dynamin-2 p.R465W mutation perturbs the synaptic and cognitive function in a CNM mouse model and support the idea that this GTPase plays a key role in regulating neuronal morphology and excitatory synaptic transmission in the hippocampus.

Differential regulation of α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic Acid (AMPA) receptor tetramerization by auxiliary subunits

AMPA receptor (AMPAR) auxiliary subunits are specialized, non-transient binding partners of AMPARs that modulate their ion channel gating properties and pharmacology, as well as their biogenesis and trafficking. The most well characterized families of auxiliary subunits are transmembrane AMPAR regulatory proteins (TARPs) and cornichon homologs (CNIHs) and the more recently discovered GSG1-L. These auxiliary subunits can promote or reduce surface expression of AMPARs in neurons, thereby impacting their functional role in membrane signaling. Here, we show that CNIH-2 enhances the tetramerization of wild type and mutant AMPARs, possibly by increasing the overall stability of the tetrameric complex, an effect that is mainly mediated by interactions with the transmembrane domain of the receptor. We also find CNIH-2 and CNIH-3 show receptor subunit-specific actions in this regard with CNIH-2 enhancing both GluA1 and GluA2 tetramerization whereas CNIH-3 only weakly enhances GluA1 tetramerization. These results are consistent with the proposed role of CNIHs as endoplasmic reticulum cargo transporters for AMPARs. In contrast, TARP γ-2, TARP γ-8, and GSG1-L have no or negligible effect on AMPAR tetramerization. On the other hand, TARP γ-2 can enhance receptor tetramerization but only when directly fused with the receptor at a maximal stoichiometry. Notably, surface expression of functional AMPARs was enhanced by CNIH-2 to a greater extent than TARP γ-2 suggesting that this distinction aids in maturation and membrane expression. These experiments define a functional distinction between CNIHs and other auxiliary subunits in the regulation of AMPAR biogenesis.

Muscarinic acetylcholine receptor-dependent and NMDA receptor-dependent LTP and LTD share the common AMPAR trafficking pathway

The forebrain cholinergic system promotes higher brain function in part by signaling through the M₁ muscarinic acetylcholine receptor (mAChR). Long-term potentiation (LTP) and long-term depression (LTD) of excitatory synaptic transmission in the hippocampus are also induced by mAChR. An AMPA receptor (AMPAR) trafficking model for hippocampal neurons has been proposed to simulate N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR)-dependent synaptic plasticity in the early phase. In this study, we demonstrated the validity of the hypothesis that the mAChR-dependent LTP/LTD shares a common AMPAR trafficking pathway associated with NMDAR-dependent LTP/LTD. However, unlike NMDAR, Ca²⁺ influx into the spine cytosol occurs owing to the Ca²⁺ stored inside the ER and is induced via the activation of inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP3) receptors during M1 mAChR activation. Moreover, the AMPAR trafficking model implies that alterations in LTP and LTD observed in Alzheimer's disease could be attributed to age-dependent reductions in AMPAR expression levels.

The Role of Zinc and NMDA Receptors in Autism Spectrum Disorders

NMDA-type glutamate receptors are critical for synaptic plasticity in the central nervous system. Their unique properties and age-dependent arrangement of subunit types underpin their role as a coincidence detector of pre- and postsynaptic activity during brain development and maturation. NMDAR function is highly modulated by zinc, which is co-released with glutamate and concentrates in postsynaptic spines. Both NMDARs and zinc have been strongly linked to autism spectrum disorders (ASDs), suggesting that NMDARs are an important player in the beneficial effects observed with zinc in both animal models and children with ASDs. Significant evidence is emerging that these beneficial effects occur via zinc-dependent regulation of SHANK proteins, which form the backbone of the postsynaptic density. For example, dietary zinc supplementation enhances SHANK2 or SHANK3 synaptic recruitment and rescues NMDAR deficits and hypofunction in Shank3^ex13-16-/- and Tbr1^+/- ASD mice. Across multiple studies, synaptic changes occur in parallel with a reversal of ASD-associated behaviours, highlighting the zinc-dependent regulation of NMDARs and glutamatergic synapses as therapeutic targets for severe forms of ASDs, either pre- or postnatally. The data from rodent models set a strong foundation for future translational studies in human cells and people affected by ASDs.

The Potential Role of AMPA Receptor Trafficking in Autism and Other Neurodevelopmental Conditions

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a multifaceted condition associated with difficulties in social interaction and communication. It also shares several comorbidities with other neurodevelopmental conditions. Intensive research examining the molecular basis and characteristics of ASD has revealed an association with a large number and variety of low-penetrance genes. Many of the variants associated with ASD are in genes underlying pathways involved in long-term potentiation (LTP) or depression (LTD). These mechanisms then control the tuning of neuronal connections in response to experience by modifying and trafficking ionotropic glutamate receptors at the post-synaptic areas. Despite the high genetic heterogeneity in ASD, surface trafficking of the α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-Methyl-4-isoxazolepropionate (AMPA) receptor is a vulnerable pathway in ASD. In this review, we discuss autism-related alterations in the trafficking of AMPA receptors, whose surface density and composition at the post-synapse determine the strength of the excitatory connection between neurons. We highlight genes associated with neurodevelopmental conditions that share the autism comorbidity, including Fragile X syndrome, Rett Syndrome, and Tuberous Sclerosis, as well as the autism-risk genes NLGNs, IQSEC2, DOCK4, and STXBP5, all of which are involved in regulating AMPAR trafficking to the post-synaptic surface.

Rho Signaling in Synaptic Plasticity, Memory, and Brain Disorders

Memory impairments are associated with many brain disorders such as autism, Alzheimer's disease, and depression. Forming memories involves modifications of synaptic transmission and spine morphology. The Rho family small GTPases are key regulators of synaptic plasticity by affecting various downstream molecules to remodel the actin cytoskeleton. In this paper, we will review recent studies on the roles of Rho proteins in the regulation of hippocampal long-term potentiation (LTP) and long-term depression (LTD), the most extensively studied forms of synaptic plasticity widely regarded as cellular mechanisms for learning and memory. We will also discuss the involvement of Rho signaling in spine morphology, the structural basis of synaptic plasticity and memory formation. Finally, we will review the association between brain disorders and abnormalities of Rho function. It is expected that studying Rho signaling at the synapse will contribute to the understanding of how memory is formed and disrupted in diseases.

Auxiliary Subunits Regulate the Dendritic Turnover of AMPA Receptors in Mouse Hippocampal Neurons

Different families of auxiliary subunits regulate the function and trafficking of native α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA) receptors in the central nervous system. While a facilitatory role of auxiliary subunits in ER export and forward trafficking of newly synthesized AMPA receptors is firmly established, it is unclear whether auxiliary subunits also control endosomal receptor turnover in dendrites. Here, we manipulated the composition of AMPA receptor complexes in cultured hippocampal neurons by overexpression of two auxiliary subunits, transmembrane AMPAR regulatory protein (TARP) γ-8 or cysteine knot AMPAR-modulating protein (CKAMP) 44a, and monitored dendritic receptor cycling in live-cell imaging experiments. Receptor surface delivery was assayed using a modified AMPA receptor subunit carrying the pH-dependent fluorophore superecliptic pHluorin (SEP-GluA1), which regains its fluorescence during receptor exocytosis, when transiting from the acidic lumen of transport organelles to the neutral extracellular medium. Strikingly, we observed a dramatic reduction in the spontaneous fusion rate of AMPA receptor-containing organelles in neurons overexpressing either type of auxiliary subunit. An analysis of intracellular receptor distribution also revealed a decreased receptor pool in dendritic recycling endosomes, suggesting that incorporation of TARPγ-8 or CKAMP44a in receptor complexes generally diminishes cycling through the endosomal compartment. To directly analyze dendritic receptor turnover, we also generated a new reporter by N-terminal fusion of a self-labeling HaloTag to an AMPA receptor subunit (HaloTag-GluA1), which allows for selective, irreversible staining of surface receptors. Pulse chase-experiments with HaloTag-GluA1 indeed demonstrated that overexpression of TARPγ-8 or CKAMP44a reduces the constitutive internalization rate of surface receptors at extrasynaptic but not synaptic sites. Thus, our data point to a yet unrecognized regulatory function of TARPγ-8 and CKAMP44a, by which these structurally unrelated auxiliary subunits delay local recycling and increase surface lifetime of extrasynaptic AMPA receptors.

Phosphorylation of AMPA receptor subunit GluA1 regulates clathrin-mediated receptor internalization

Synaptic strength is altered during synaptic plasticity by controlling the number of AMPA receptors (AMPARs) at excitatory synapses. During long-term potentiation and synaptic up-scaling, AMPARs are accumulated at synapses to increase synaptic strength. Neuronal activity leads to phosphorylation of AMPAR subunit GluA1 and subsequent elevation of GluA1 surface expression, either by an increase in receptor forward trafficking to the synaptic membrane or a decrease in receptor internalization. However, the molecular pathways underlying GluA1 phosphorylation-induced elevation of surface AMPAR expression are not completely understood. Here, we employ fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP) to reveal that phosphorylation of GluA1 Serine 845 (S845) predominantly plays a role in receptor internalization than forward trafficking during synaptic plasticity. Notably, internalization of AMPARs depends upon the clathrin adaptor, AP2, which recruits cargo proteins into endocytic clathrin coated pits. In fact, we further reveal that an increase in GluA1 S845 phosphorylation by two distinct forms of synaptic plasticity diminishes the binding of the AP2 adaptor, reducing internalization, and resulting in elevation of GluA1 surface expression. We thus demonstrate a mechanism of GluA1 phosphorylation-regulated clathrin-mediated internalization of AMPARs.

Spatiotemporal Regulation of Transcript Isoform Expression in the Hippocampus

Proper development and plasticity of hippocampal neurons require specific RNA isoforms to be expressed in the right place at the right time. Precise spatiotemporal transcript regulation requires the incorporation of essential regulatory RNA sequences into expressed isoforms. In this review, we describe several RNA processing strategies utilized by hippocampal neurons to regulate the spatiotemporal expression of genes critical to development and plasticity. The works described here demonstrate how the hippocampus is an ideal investigative model for uncovering alternate isoform-specific mechanisms that restrict the expression of transcripts in space and time.

KIF13A drives AMPA receptor synaptic delivery for long-term potentiation via endosomal remodeling

The regulated trafficking of AMPA-type glutamate receptors (AMPARs) from dendritic compartments to the synaptic membrane in response to neuronal activity is a core mechanism for long-term potentiation (LTP). However, the contribution of the microtubule cytoskeleton to this synaptic transport is still unknown. In this work, using electrophysiological, biochemical, and imaging techniques, we have found that one member of the kinesin-3 family of motor proteins, KIF13A, is specifically required for the delivery of AMPARs to the spine surface during LTP induction. Accordingly, KIF13A depletion from hippocampal slices abolishes LTP expression. We also identify the vesicular protein centaurin-α1 as part of a motor transport machinery that is engaged with KIF13A and AMPARs upon LTP induction. Finally, we determine that KIF13A is responsible for the remodeling of Rab11-FIP2 endosomal structures in the dendritic shaft during LTP. Overall, these results identify specific kinesin molecular motors and endosomal transport machinery that catalyzes the dendrite-to-synapse translocation of AMPA receptors during synaptic plasticity.

Brain-specific functions of the endocytic machinery

Endocytosis is an essential cellular process required for multiple physiological functions, including communication with the extracellular environment, nutrient uptake, and signaling by the cell surface receptors. In a broad sense, endocytosis is accomplished through either constitutive or ligand-induced invagination of the plasma membrane, which results in the formation of the plasma membrane-retrieved endocytic vesicles, which can either be sent for degradation to the lysosomes or recycled back to the PM. This additional function of endocytosis in membrane retrieval has been adopted by excitable cells, such as neurons, for membrane equilibrium maintenance at synapses. The last two decades were especially productive with respect to the identification of brain-specific functions of the endocytic machinery, which additionally include but not limited to regulation of neuronal differentiation and migration, maintenance of neuron morphology and synaptic plasticity, and prevention of neurotoxic aggregates spreading. In this review, we highlight the current knowledge of brain-specific functions of endocytic machinery with a specific focus on three brain cell types, neuronal progenitor cells, neurons, and glial cells.

The biophysical basis underlying the maintenance of early phase long-term potentiation

The maintenance of synaptic changes resulting from long-term potentiation (LTP) is essential for brain function such as memory and learning. Different LTP phases have been associated with diverse molecular processes and pathways, and the molecular underpinnings of LTP on the short, as well as long time scales, are well established. However, the principles on the intermediate time scale of 1-6 hours that mediate the early phase of LTP (E-LTP) remain elusive. We hypothesize that the interplay between specific features of postsynaptic receptor trafficking is responsible for sustaining synaptic changes during this LTP phase. We test this hypothesis by formalizing a biophysical model that integrates several experimentally-motivated mechanisms. The model captures a wide range of experimental findings and predicts that synaptic changes are preserved for hours when the receptor dynamics are shaped by the interplay of structural changes of the spine in conjunction with increased trafficking from recycling endosomes and the cooperative binding of receptors. Furthermore, our model provides several predictions to verify our findings experimentally.

Reelin activates the small GTPase TC10 and VAMP7 to promote neurite outgrowth and regeneration of dorsal root ganglia (DRG) neurons

Axonal outgrowth is a fundamental process during the development of central (CNS) and peripheral (PNS) nervous system as well as in nerve regeneration and requires accurate axonal navigation and extension to the correct target. These events need proper coordination between membrane trafficking and cytoskeletal rearrangements and are under the control of the small GTPases of the Rho family, among other molecules. Reelin, a relevant protein for CNS development and synaptic function in the adult, is also present in the PNS. Upon sciatic nerve damage, Reelin expression increases and, on the other hand, mice deficient in Reelin exhibit an impaired nerve regeneration. However, the mechanism(s) involved the Reelin-dependent axonal growth is still poorly understood. In this work, we present evidence showing that Reelin stimulates dorsal root ganglia (DRG) regeneration after axotomy. Moreover, dissociated DRG neurons express the Reelin receptor Apolipoprotein E-receptor 2 and also require the presence of TC10 to develop their axons. TC10 is a Rho GTPase that promotes neurite outgrowth through the exocytic fusion of vesicles at the growth cone. Here, we demonstrate for the first time that Reelin controls TC10 activation in DRG neurons. Besides, we confirmed that the known CNS Reelin target Cdc42 is also activated in DRG and controls TC10 activity. Finally, in the process of membrane addition, we found that Reelin stimulates the fusion of membrane carriers containing the v-SNARE protein VAMP7 in vesicles that contain TC10. Altogether, our work shows a new role of Reelin in PNS, opening the option of therapeutic interventions to improve the regeneration process.

Dysfunctional Autophagy and Endolysosomal System in Neurodegenerative Diseases: Relevance and Therapeutic Options

Autophagy and endolysosomal trafficking are crucial in neuronal development, function and survival. These processes ensure efficient removal of misfolded aggregation-prone proteins and damaged organelles, such as dysfunctional mitochondria, thus allowing the maintenance of proper cellular homeostasis. Beside this, emerging evidence has pointed to their involvement in the regulation of the synaptic proteome needed to guarantee an efficient neurotransmitter release and synaptic plasticity. Along this line, an intimate interplay between the molecular machinery regulating synaptic vesicle endocytosis and synaptic autophagy is emerging, suggesting that synaptic quality control mechanisms need to be tightly coupled to neurosecretion to secure release accuracy. Defects in autophagy and endolysosomal pathway have been associated with neuronal dysfunction and extensively reported in Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, Huntington's and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis among other neurodegenerative diseases, with common features and emerging genetic bases. In this review, we focus on the multiple roles of autophagy and endolysosomal system in neuronal homeostasis and highlight how their defects probably contribute to synaptic default and neurodegeneration in the above-mentioned diseases, discussing the most recent options explored for therapeutic interventions.

Dynamin Superfamily at Pre- and Postsynapses: Master Regulators of Synaptic Transmission and Plasticity in Health and Disease

Dynamin superfamily proteins (DSPs) comprise a large group of GTP-ases that orchestrate membrane fusion and fission, and cytoskeleton remodeling in different cell-types. At the central nervous system, they regulate synaptic vesicle recycling and signaling-receptor turnover, allowing the maintenance of synaptic transmission. In the presynapses, these GTP-ases control the recycling of synaptic vesicles influencing the size of the ready-releasable pool and the release of neurotransmitters from nerve terminals, whereas in the postsynapses, they are involved in AMPA-receptor trafficking to and from postsynaptic densities, supporting excitatory synaptic plasticity, and consequently learning and memory formation. In agreement with these relevant roles, an important number of neurological disorders are associated with mutations and/or dysfunction of these GTP-ases. Along the present review we discuss the importance of DSPs at synapses and their implication in different neuropathological contexts.

The Recycling Endosome in Nerve Cell Development: One Rab to Rule Them All?

Endocytic recycling is an intracellular process that returns internalized molecules back to the plasma membrane and plays crucial roles not only in the reuse of receptor molecules but also in the remodeling of the different components of this membrane. This process is required for a diversity of cellular events, including neuronal morphology acquisition and functional regulation, among others. The recycling endosome (RE) is a key vesicular component involved in endocytic recycling. Recycling back to the cell surface may occur with the participation of several different Rab proteins, which are master regulators of membrane/protein trafficking in nerve cells. The RE consists of a network of interconnected and functionally distinct tubular subdomains that originate from sorting endosomes and transport their cargoes along microtubule tracks, by fast or slow recycling pathways. Different populations of REs, particularly those formed by Rab11, Rab35, and Arf6, are associated with a myriad of signaling proteins. In this review, we discuss the cumulative evidence suggesting the existence of heterogeneous domains of REs, controlling different aspects of neurogenesis, with a particular focus on the commonalities and singularities of these REs and their contribution to nerve development and differentiation in several animal models.

Temporal Quantitative Proteomics of mGluR-induced Protein Translation and Phosphorylation in Neurons

At neuronal synapses, activation of group I metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluR1/5) triggers a form of long-term depression (mGluR-LTD) that relies on new protein synthesis and the internalization of AMPA-type glutamate receptors. Dysregulation of these processes has been implicated in the development of mental disorders such as autism spectrum disorders and therefore merit a better understanding on a molecular level. Here, to study mGluR-induced signaling pathways, we integrated quantitative phosphoproteomics with the analyses of newly synthesized proteins via bio-orthogonal amino acids (azidohomoalanine) in a pulsed labeling strategy in cultured hippocampal neurons stimulated with DHPG, a specific agonist for group I mGluRs. We identified several kinases with important roles in DHPG-induced mGluR activation, which we confirmed using small molecule kinase inhibitors. Furthermore, changes in the AMPA receptor endocytosis pathway in both protein synthesis and protein phosphorylation were identified, whereby Intersectin-1 was validated as a novel player in this pathway. This study revealed several new insights into the molecular pathways downstream of group I mGluR activation in hippocampal neurons, and provides a rich resource for further analyses.

Glutamatergic Receptor Trafficking and Delivery: Role of the Exocyst Complex

Cells comprise several intracellular membrane compartments that allow them to function properly. One of these functions is cargo movement, typically proteins and membranes within cells. These cargoes ride microtubules through vesicles from Golgi and recycling endosomes to the plasma membrane in order to be delivered and exocytosed. In neurons, synaptic functions employ this cargo trafficking to maintain inter-neuronal communication optimally. One of the complexes that oversee vesicle trafficking and tethering is the exocyst. The exocyst is a protein complex containing eight subunits first identified in yeast and then characterized in multicellular organisms. This complex is related to several cellular processes, including cellular growth, division, migration, and morphogenesis, among others. It has been associated with glutamatergic receptor trafficking and tethering into the synapse, providing the molecular machinery to deliver receptor-containing vesicles into the plasma membrane in a constitutive manner. In this review, we discuss the evidence so far published regarding receptor trafficking and the exocyst complex in both basal and stimulated levels, comparing constitutive trafficking and long-term potentiation-related trafficking.

The Vps52 subunit of the GARP and EARP complexes is a novel Arf6-interacting protein that negatively regulates neurite outgrowth of hippocampal neurons

ADP ribosylation factor 6 (Arf6) is a small GTP-binding protein implicated in neuronal morphogenesis through endosomal trafficking and actin remodeling. In this study, we identified Vps52, a core subunit of the Golgi-associated retrograde protein (GARP) and endosome-associated recycling protein (EARP) complexes, as a novel Arf6-binding protein by yeast two-hybrid screening. Vps52 interacted specifically with GTP-bound Arf6 among the Arf family. Immunohistochemical analyses of hippocampal pyramidal cells revealed that fine punctate immunolabeling for Vps52 was distributed throughout neuronal compartments, most densely in the cell body and dendritic shafts, and was largely associated with trans-Golgi network and vesicular endomembranes. In cultured hippocampal neurons, knockdown of Vps52 increased total length of axons and dendrites; these phenotypes were completely restored by co-expression of shRNA-resistant full-length Vps52. However, co-expression of a Vps52 mutant lacking the ability to interact with Arf6 restored only the Vps52-knockdown phenotype of the dendritic length. The present findings suggest that Vps52 is a novel Arf6-interacting protein that regulates neurite outgrowth in hippocampal neurons.

BRAG2a Mediates mGluR-Dependent AMPA Receptor Internalization at Excitatory Postsynapses through the Interaction with PSD-95 and Endophilin 3

Brefeldin A-resistant ArfGEF 2 (BRAG2) [or Iqsec1 (IQ motif and Sec7 domain-containing protein 1)] is a guanine nucleotide exchange factor for ADP ribosylation factor 6 (Arf6), a small GTPase implicated in the membrane trafficking between the plasma membrane and endosomes. BRAG2 regulates Arf6-dependent endocytosis of AMPA receptors (AMPARs) through the direct interaction during the hippocampal long-term depression. However, the molecular mechanism by which the BRAG2-Arf6 pathway links AMPARs to the endocytic machinery remains elusive. Herein, using mouse brains of both sexes, we demonstrated that BRAG2a, an alternative isoform with a long C-terminal insert containing a proline-rich domain and type I PDZ-binding motif, was selectively localized to the excitatory postsynaptic density (PSD). Using yeast two-hybrid screening, we identified PSD-95 and endophilin 1/3 as BRAG2a-binding partners in the brain. The interaction with PSD-95 was required for synaptic targeting of BRAG2a. In cultured hippocampal neurons, stimulation of group I metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs) increased the interaction of BRAG2a with endophilin 3 and concomitant Arf6 activation in a time-dependent manner. Knockdown of BRAG2 in cultured hippocampal neurons blocked the mGluR-dependent decrease in surface AMPAR levels, which was rescued by introducing wild-type BRAG2a, but not wild-type BRAG2b or BRAG2a mutants lacking the ability to activate Arf6 or to interact with endophilin 3 or PSD-95. Further postembedding immunoelectron microscopic analysis revealed the preorganized lateral distribution of BRAG2a, Arf6, and endophilin 3 for efficient endocytosis at the postsynaptic membrane. Together, the present findings unveiled a novel molecular mechanism by which BRAG2a links AMPARs to the clathrin-dependent endocytic pathway through its interaction with PSD-95 and endophilin 3.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT BRAG2/Iqsec1 is a GDP/GTP exchange factor for ADP ribosylation factor 6 (Arf6), a small GTPase implicated in the membrane trafficking between the plasma membrane and endosomes, and regulates Arf6-dependent endocytosis of AMPARs through direct interaction during hippocampal long-term depression, one of the mechanisms of synaptic plasticity related to learning and memory. However, the molecular mechanism by which the BRAG2-Arf6 pathway links AMPARs to the endocytic machinery remains elusive. Here, we identified isoform-specific mechanisms of BRAG2-mediated AMPAR internalization. We demonstrated that the interaction of BRAG2a isoform with PSD-95 and endophilin 3 was required for the mGluR-dependent decrease in surface AMPARs in hippocampal neurons. These results unveiled a novel molecular mechanism by which BRAG2 links AMPARs to the clathrin-mediated endocytic machinery at postsynaptic sites.

A retention-release mechanism based on RAB11FIP2 for AMPA receptor synaptic delivery during long-term potentiation

It is well--established that Rab11-dependent recycling endosomes drive the activity-dependent delivery of AMPA receptors (AMPARs) into synapses during long-term potentiation (LTP). Nevertheless, the molecular basis for this specialized function of recycling endosomes is still unknown. Here, we have investigated RAB11FIP2 (FIP2 hereafter) as a potential effector of Rab11-dependent trafficking during LTP in rat hippocampal slices. Surprisingly, we found that FIP2 operates independently from Rab11 proteins, and acts as a negative regulator of AMPAR synaptic trafficking. Under basal conditions, FIP2 associates with AMPARs at immobile compartments, separately from recycling endosomes. Using shRNA-mediated knockdown, we found that FIP2 prevents GluA1 (encoded by the Gria1 gene) AMPARs from reaching the surface of dendritic spines in the absence of neuronal stimulation. Upon induction of LTP, FIP2 is rapidly mobilized, dissociates from AMPARs and undergoes dephosphorylation. Interestingly, this dissociation of the FIP2-AMPAR complex, together with FIP2 dephosphorylation, is required for LTP, but the interaction between FIP2 and Rab11 proteins is not. Based on these results, we propose a retention-release mechanism, where FIP2 acts as a gate that restricts the trafficking of AMPARs, until LTP induction triggers their release and allows synaptic delivery.

Lmtk3-KO Mice Display a Range of Behavioral Abnormalities and Have an Impairment in GluA1 Trafficking

Accumulating evidence suggests that glutamatergic signaling and synaptic plasticity underlie one of a number of ways psychiatric disorders appear. The present study reveals a possible mechanism by which this occurs, through highlighting the importance of LMTK3, in the brain. Behavioral analysis of Lmtk3-KO mice revealed a number of abnormalities that have been linked to psychiatric disease such as hyper-sociability, PPI deficits and cognitive dysfunction. Treatment with clozapine suppressed these behavioral changes in Lmtk3-KO mice. As synaptic dysfunction is implicated in human psychiatric disease, we analyzed the LTP of Lmtk3-KO mice and found that induction is severely impaired. Further investigation revealed abnormalities in GluA1 trafficking after AMPA stimulation in Lmtk3-KO neurons, along with a reduction in GluA1 expression in the post-synaptic density. Therefore, we hypothesize that LMTK3 is an important factor involved in the trafficking of GluA1 during LTP, and that disruption of this pathway contributes to the appearance of behavior associated with human psychiatric disease in mice.

Visualization of Exo- and Endocytosis of AMPA Receptors During Hippocampal Synaptic Plasticity Around Postsynaptic-Like Membrane Formed on Glass Surface

Regulation of exo- and endocytosis of α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA)-type glutamate receptor (AMPAR) plays a critical role in the expression of synaptic plasticity such as long-term potentiation (LTP) and long-term depression (LTD) at excitatory central synapses. Enhanced AMPAR exocytosis or endocytosis has been suggested to contribute to LTP or LTD, respectively. However, several unsettled fundamental questions have remained about AMPAR exo- and endocytosis in the basal condition and during synaptic plasticity: (1) Does the size of each exo- or endocytosis event, and/or do the frequencies of these events change during LTP or LTD? If they change, what are the time courses of the respective changes? (2) Where does the exo- or endocytosis preferentially occur in each condition: inside or in the vicinity of postsynaptic membrane, or in the extrasynaptic membrane? (3) Do different types of AMPAR, such as GluA1 homo-tetramer, GluA1/2 hetero-tetramer and GluA2/3 hetero-tetramer, show distinct exo- and endocytosis changes? To address these questions, we developed new methods to observe individual events of AMPAR exo- or endocytosis with a high signal to noise (SN) ratio in a culture preparation using total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy (TIRFM). In these studies, hippocampal neurons were cultured on a neurexin (NRX)-coated glass coverslip, which induced formation of postsynaptic-like membrane (PSLM) directly on the glass surface. Then, a super-ecliptic pHluorin (SEP)-tagged AMPAR subunit such as GluA1 (GluA1-SEP) was expressed in neurons and its fluorescence changes during LTP induced by high frequency electrical field stimulation were observed with TIRFM, which showed different time courses of exocytosis changes of GluA1-, GluA2-, or GluA3-SEP in and around PSLM. In addition, a new method to detect individual endocytosis events of AMPAR was developed by combining TIFRM observation of GluA-SEP around PSLM with a rapid extracellular pH exchange method using a U-tube. Recent results on exo- and endocytosis changes of GluA-SEP during N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA)-induced LTD suggested that suppression of AMPAR exocytosis rather than enhancement of AMPAR endocytosis primarily contributes to LTD expression, although the NMDA application transiently enhances clathrin-dependent endocytosis of GluA1-containing AMPAR.

Mechanisms and Role of Dendritic Membrane Trafficking for Long-Term Potentiation

Long-term potentiation (LTP) of excitatory synapses is a major form of plasticity for learning and memory in the central nervous system. While the molecular mechanisms of LTP have been debated for decades, there is consensus that LTP induction activates membrane trafficking pathways within dendrites that are essential for synapse growth and strengthening. Current models suggest that key molecules for synaptic potentiation are sequestered within intracellular organelles, which are mobilized by synaptic activity to fuse with the plasma membrane following LTP induction. While the identity of the factors mobilized to the plasma membrane during LTP remain obscure, the field has narrowly focused on AMPA-type glutamate receptors. Here, we review recent literature and present new experimental data from our lab investigating whether AMPA receptors trafficked from intracellular organelles directly contribute to synaptic strengthening during LTP. We propose a modified model where membrane trafficking delivers distinct factors that are required to maintain synapse growth and AMPA receptor incorporation following LTP. Finally, we pose several fundamental questions that may guide further inquiry into the role of membrane trafficking for synaptic plasticity.

Optogenetic Control of Synaptic AMPA Receptor Endocytosis Reveals Roles of LTD in Motor Learning

Long-term depression (LTD) of AMPA-type glutamate receptor (AMPA receptor)-mediated synaptic transmission has been proposed as a cellular substrate for learning and memory. Although activity-induced AMPA receptor endocytosis is believed to underlie LTD, it remains largely unclear whether LTD and AMPA receptor endocytosis at specific synapses are causally linked to learning and memory in vivo. Here we developed a new optogenetic tool, termed PhotonSABER, which enabled the temporal, spatial, and cell-type-specific control of AMPA receptor endocytosis at active synapses, while the basal synaptic properties and other forms of synaptic plasticity were unaffected. We found that fiberoptic illumination to Purkinje cells expressing PhotonSABER in vivo inhibited cerebellar motor learning during adaptation of the horizontal optokinetic response and vestibulo-ocular reflex, as well as synaptic AMPA receptor decrease in the flocculus. Our results demonstrate that LTD and AMPA receptor endocytosis at specific neuronal circuits were directly responsible for motor learning in vivo. VIDEO ABSTRACT.

Autophagy at the synapse

As the sites of communication between neurons, synapses depend upon precisely regulated protein-protein interactions to support neurotransmitter release and reception. Moreover, neuronal synapses typically exist great distances (i.e. up to meters) away from cell bodies, which are the sources of new proteins and the major sites of protein degradation via lysosomes. Thus, synapses are uniquely sensitive to disruptions in proteostasis, and depend upon carefully orchestrated degradative mechanisms for the clearance of dysfunctional proteins. One of the primary cellular degradative pathways is macroautophagy, hereafter referred to as 'autophagy'. Although it has only recently become a focus of research in synaptic biology, emerging studies indicate that autophagy has essential functions at the synapse throughout an organism's lifetime. This review will discuss recent findings about the roles of synaptic autophagy, as well as some of the questions and issues to be considered in this field moving forward.

Neurotrophin Responsiveness of Sympathetic Neurons Is Regulated by Rapid Mobilization of the p75 Receptor to the Cell Surface through TrkA Activation of Arf6

The p75 neurotrophin receptor (p75NTR) plays an integral role in patterning the sympathetic nervous system during development. Initially, p75NTR is expressed at low levels as sympathetic axons project toward their targets, which enables neurotrophin-3 (NT3) to activate TrkA receptors and promote growth. Upon reaching nerve growth factor (NGF) producing tissues, p75NTR is upregulated, resulting in formation of TrkA-p75 complexes, which are high-affinity binding sites selective for NGF, thereby blunting NT3 signaling. The level of p75NTR expressed on the neuron surface is instrumental in regulating trophic factor response; however, the mechanisms by which p75NTR expression is regulated are poorly understood. Here, we demonstrate a rapid, translation independent increase in surface expression of p75NTR in response to NGF in rat sympathetic neurons. p75NTR was mobilized to the neuron surface from GGA3-postitive vesicles through activation of the GTPase Arf6, which was stimulated by NGF, but not NT3 binding to TrkA. Arf6 activation required PI3 kinase activity and was prevented by an inhibitor of the cytohesin family of Arf6 guanine nucleotide exchange factors. Overexpression of a constitutively active Arf6 mutant (Q67L) was sufficient to significantly increase surface expression of p75NTR even in the absence of NGF. Functionally, expression of active Arf6 markedly attenuated the ability of NT3 to promote neuronal survival and neurite outgrowth, whereas the NGF response was unaltered. These data suggest that NGF activation of Arf6 through TrkA is critical for the increase in p75NTR surface expression that enables the switch in neurotrophin responsiveness during development in the sympathetic nervous system.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT p75NTR is instrumental in the regulation of neuronal survival and apoptosis during development and is also implicated as a contributor to aberrant neurodegeneration in numerous conditions. Therefore, a better understanding of the mechanisms that mediate p75NTR surface availability may provide insight into how and why neurodegenerative processes manifest and reveal new therapeutic targets. Results from this study indicate a novel mechanism by which p75NTR can be rapidly shuttled to the cell surface from existing intracellular pools and explores a unique pathway by which NGF regulates the sympathetic innervation of target tissues, which has profound consequences for the function of these organs.

Suppression of AMPA Receptor Exocytosis Contributes to Hippocampal LTD

The decrease in number of AMPA-type glutamate receptor (AMPAR) at excitatory synapses causes LTD, a cellular basis of learning and memory. The number of postsynaptic AMPARs is regulated by the balance of exocytosis and endocytosis, and enhanced endocytosis of AMPAR has been suggested to underlie the LTD expression. However, it remains unclear how endocytosis and exocytosis of AMPAR change during LTD. In this study, we addressed this question by analyzing exocytosis and endocytosis of AMPAR by imaging super-ecliptic pHlorin (SEP)-tagged AMPAR around postsynaptic structure formed directly on the glass surface in the hippocampal culture prepared from rat embryos of both sexes. Contrary to a prevailing view on the LTD expression by endocytosis enhancement, the LTD induction by NMDA application only transiently enhanced endocytosis of SEP-tagged GluA1 subunits of AMPAR, which was counteracted by simultaneous augmentation of exocytosis. As a result, soon after the start of the LTD induction (∼1 min), the surface AMPAR did not markedly decrease. Thereafter, the surface GluA1-SEP gradually decreased (2-5 min) and kept at a low level until the end of observation (>30 min). Surprisingly, this gradual and sustained decrease of surface AMPAR was accompanied not by the enhanced endocytic events of GluA1, but by the suppression of exocytosis. Together, our data highlight an unprecedented mechanism for the LTD expression by attenuation of exocytosis of AMPAR, but not by enhanced endocytosis, together with a reduction of postsynaptic AMPAR scaffolding protein PSD95.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT It has been generally assumed that LTD is expressed by enhancement of AMPAR endocytosis. Previous studies reported that endocytosis-related protein was involved in LTD and that significant amount of cell-surface AMPAR moved into intracellular compartments during LTD. Here, we report changes of cell-surface amount of AMPAR, and where and when individual exocytosis and endocytosis occurred during LTD. Cell-surface AMPAR gradually decreased in synchrony with suppression of exocytosis but not with enhancement of endocytosis. These results suggest that the decrease of cell-surface AMPAR amount during LTD was caused not by enhancement of endocytosis but rather by suppression of exocytosis, which revises current understanding of the expression mechanism of LTD.

RNG105/caprin1, an RNA granule protein for dendritic mRNA localization, is essential for long-term memory formation

Local regulation of synaptic efficacy is thought to be important for proper networking of neurons and memory formation. Dysregulation of global translation influences long-term memory in mice, but the relevance of the regulation specific for local translation by RNA granules remains elusive. Here, we demonstrate roles of RNG105/caprin1 in long-term memory formation. RNG105 deletion in mice impaired synaptic strength and structural plasticity in hippocampal neurons. Furthermore, RNG105-deficient mice displayed unprecedentedly severe defects in long-term memory formation in spatial and contextual learning tasks. Genome-wide profiling of mRNA distribution in the hippocampus revealed an underlying mechanism: RNG105 deficiency impaired the asymmetric somato-dendritic localization of mRNAs. Particularly, RNG105 deficiency reduced the dendritic localization of mRNAs encoding regulators of AMPAR surface expression, which was consistent with attenuated homeostatic AMPAR scaling in dendrites and reduced synaptic strength. Thus, RNG105 has an essential role, as a key regulator of dendritic mRNA localization, in long-term memory formation.

Messages pass from one nerve cell to the next across gaps called synapses. The first neuron releases chemical signals from the end of its long, thin nerve fiber. The second receives the message at receptors on branching structures known as dendrites. Each connection has a corresponding bump called a dendritic spine. As animals learn, these can grow larger, strengthening the connection. This is the basis of how memories form.

To strengthen a synapse, the cell must transport the materials to the dendritic spine. The cell makes copies of the genetic instructions to strengthen the synapse in the form of messenger RNA (often shortened to mRNA). But, this happens in the body of the cell, a long way from the dendrites themselves. The mRNA travels from the cell body to the dendrites in collections of molecules referred to as ‘RNA granules’.

One of the key components of the RNA granule system is a protein called RNG105/caprin1. Now, Nakayama, Ohashi et al. have engineered mice to delete the gene for RNG105/caprin1, revealing its effect on memory. Mice lacking RNG105/caprin1 struggled to make long-term memories. Unlike their normal counterparts, these mutant mice did not become accustomed to new environments or objects. They also found it more challenging to learn the position of a hidden platform in a water-based maze. Lastly, over time, the mutant mice forgot to be fearful of a dark chamber where they had received a small electric shock.

Memories form in a part of the brain called the hippocampus and the dendritic spines in this region were smaller in mice lacking RNG105/caprin1. Furthermore, when the nerve cells from this part of the brain were grown in Petri dishes, they did not respond normally to stimulation. The dendritic spines of normal cells increased in size, but those on the cells lacking RNG105/caprin1 got smaller compared to normal cells.

A closer look revealed that the distribution of mRNA in brain cells from mice lacking RNG105/caprin1 differed from that of normal mice. Some pieces of genetic information failed to make it from the cell body to the dendrites. This included mRNA involved in making regulators of a component of dendritic spines called the AMPA receptor. The AMPA receptor detects the chemical messenger, glutamate, and is crucial for memory formation.

These findings further our understanding of long-term memory and open the way for future research into human disease. Mutations in RNA granule components, including RNG105/caprin1, have links to conditions such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Further investigation could reveal new targets for drug treatment.

A versatile optical tool for studying synaptic GABAA receptor trafficking

Live-cell imaging methods can provide critical real-time receptor trafficking measurements. Here, we describe an optical tool to study synaptic γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) type A receptor (GABA_AR) dynamics through adaptable fluorescent-tracking capabilities. A fluorogen-activating peptide (FAP) was genetically inserted into a GABA_AR γ2 subunit tagged with pH-sensitive green fluorescent protein (γ2^pHFAP). The FAP selectively binds and activates Malachite Green (MG) dyes that are otherwise non-fluorescent in solution. γ2^pHFAP GABA_ARs are expressed at the cell surface in transfected cortical neurons, form synaptic clusters and do not perturb neuronal development. Electrophysiological studies show γ2^pHFAP GABA_ARs respond to GABA and exhibit positive modulation upon stimulation with the benzodiazepine diazepam. Imaging studies using γ2^pHFAP-transfected neurons and MG dyes show time-dependent receptor accumulation into intracellular vesicles, revealing constitutive endosomal and lysosomal trafficking. Simultaneous analysis of synaptic, surface and lysosomal receptors using the γ2^pHFAP-MG dye approach reveals enhanced GABA_AR turnover following a bicucculine-induced seizure paradigm, a finding not detected by standard surface receptor measurements. To our knowledge, this is the first application of the FAP-MG dye system in neurons, demonstrating the versatility to study nearly all phases of GABA_AR trafficking.

MAP1B Light Chain Modulates Synaptic Transmission via AMPA Receptor Intracellular Trapping

The regulated transport of AMPA-type glutamate receptors (AMPARs) to the synaptic membrane is a key mechanism to determine the strength of excitatory synaptic transmission in the brain. In this work, we uncovered a new role for the microtubule-associated protein MAP1B in modulating access of AMPARs to the postsynaptic membrane. Using mice and rats of either sex, we show that MAP1B light chain (LC) accumulates in the somatodendritic compartment of hippocampal neurons, where it forms immobile complexes on microtubules that limit vesicular transport. These complexes restrict AMPAR dendritic mobility, leading to the intracellular trapping of receptors and impairing their access to the dendritic surface and spines. Accordingly, increasing MAP1B-LC expression depresses AMPAR-mediated synaptic transmission. This effect is specific for the GluA2 subunit of the AMPAR and requires glutamate receptor interacting protein 1 (GRIP1) interaction with MAP1B-LC. Therefore, MAP1B-LC represents an alternative link between GRIP1-AMPARs and microtubules that does not result in productive transport, but rather limits AMPAR availability for synaptic insertion, with a direct impact on synaptic transmission.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT The ability of neurons to modify their synaptic connections, known as synaptic plasticity, is accepted as the cellular basis for learning and memory. One mechanism for synaptic plasticity is the regulated addition and removal of AMPA-type glutamate receptors (AMPARs) at excitatory synapses. In this study, we found that a microtubule-associated protein, MAP1B light chain (MAP1B-LC), participates in this process. MAP1B-LC forms immobile complexes along dendrites. These complexes limit intracellular vesicular trafficking and trap AMPARs inside the dendritic shaft. In this manner, MAP1B restricts the access of AMPARs to dendritic spines and the postsynaptic membrane, contributing to downregulating synaptic transmission.

The functions of Reelin in membrane trafficking and cytoskeletal dynamics: implications for neuronal migration, polarization and differentiation

Reelin is a large extracellular matrix protein with relevant roles in mammalian central nervous system including neurogenesis, neuronal polarization and migration during development; and synaptic plasticity with its implications in learning and memory, in the adult. Dysfunctions in reelin signaling are associated with brain lamination defects such as lissencephaly, but also with neuropsychiatric diseases like autism, schizophrenia and depression as well with neurodegeneration. Reelin signaling involves a core pathway that activates upon reelin binding to its receptors, particularly ApoER2 (apolipoprotein E receptor 2)/LRP8 (low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein 8) and very low-density lipoprotein receptor, followed by Src/Fyn-mediated phosphorylation of the adaptor protein Dab1 (Disabled-1). Phosphorylated Dab1 (pDab1) is a hub in the signaling cascade, from which several other downstream pathways diverge reflecting the different roles of reelin. Many of these pathways affect the dynamics of the actin and microtubular cytoskeleton, as well as membrane trafficking through the regulation of the activity of small GTPases, including the Rho and Rap families and molecules involved in cell polarity. The complexity of reelin functions is reflected by the fact that, even now, the precise mode of action of this signaling cascade in vivo at the cellular and molecular levels remains unclear. This review addresses and discusses in detail the participation of reelin in the processes underlying neurogenesis, neuronal migration in the cerebral cortex and the hippocampus; and the polarization, differentiation and maturation processes that neurons experiment in order to be functional in the adult brain. In vivo and in vitro evidence is presented in order to facilitate a better understanding of this fascinating system.

Shank3 Is Part of a Zinc-Sensitive Signaling System That Regulates Excitatory Synaptic Strength

Shank3 is a multidomain scaffold protein localized to the postsynaptic density of excitatory synapses. Functional studies in vivo and in vitro support the concept that Shank3 is critical for synaptic plasticity and the trans-synaptic coupling between the reliability of presynaptic neurotransmitter release and postsynaptic responsiveness. However, how Shank3 regulates synaptic strength remains unclear. The C terminus of Shank3 contains a sterile alpha motif (SAM) domain that is essential for its postsynaptic localization and also binds zinc, thus raising the possibility that changing zinc levels modulate Shank3 function in dendritic spines. In support of this hypothesis, we find that zinc is a potent regulator of Shank3 activation and dynamics in rat hippocampal neurons. Moreover, we show that zinc modulation of synaptic transmission is Shank3 dependent. Interestingly, an autism spectrum disorder (ASD)-associated variant of Shank3 (Shank3(R87C)) retains its zinc sensitivity and supports zinc-dependent activation of AMPAR-mediated synaptic transmission. However, elevated zinc was unable to rescue defects in trans-synaptic signaling caused by the R87C mutation, implying that trans-synaptic increases in neurotransmitter release are not necessary for the postsynaptic effects of zinc. Together, these data suggest that Shank3 is a key component of a zinc-sensitive signaling system, regulating synaptic strength that may be impaired in ASD.

SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT

Shank3 is a postsynaptic protein associated with neurodevelopmental disorders such as autism and schizophrenia. In this study, we show that Shank3 is a key component of a zinc-sensitive signaling system that regulates excitatory synaptic transmission. Intriguingly, an autism-associated mutation in Shank3 partially impairs this signaling system. Therefore, perturbation of zinc homeostasis may impair, not only synaptic functionality and plasticity, but also may lead to cognitive and behavioral abnormalities seen in patients with psychiatric disorders.

Super-resolution imaging of synaptic and Extra-synaptic AMPA receptors with different-sized fluorescent probes

Previous studies tracking AMPA receptor (AMPAR) diffusion at synapses observed a large mobile extrasynaptic AMPAR pool. Using super-resolution microscopy, we examined how fluorophore size and photostability affected AMPAR trafficking outside of, and within, post-synaptic densities (PSDs) from rats. Organic fluorescent dyes (≈4 nm), quantum dots, either small (≈10 nm diameter; sQDs) or big (>20 nm; bQDs), were coupled to AMPARs via different-sized linkers. We find that >90% of AMPARs labeled with fluorescent dyes or sQDs were diffusing in confined nanodomains in PSDs, which were stable for 15 min or longer. Less than 10% of sQD-AMPARs were extrasynaptic and highly mobile. In contrast, 5-10% of bQD-AMPARs were in PSDs and 90-95% were extrasynaptic as previously observed. Contrary to the hypothesis that AMPAR entry is limited by the occupancy of open PSD 'slots', our findings suggest that AMPARs rapidly enter stable 'nanodomains' in PSDs with lifetime >15 min, and do not accumulate in extrasynaptic membranes.

The Retromer Supports AMPA Receptor Trafficking During LTP

Alterations in the function of the retromer, a multisubunit protein complex that plays a specialized role in endosomal sorting, have been linked to Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases, yet little is known about the retromer's role in the mature brain. Using in vivo knockdown of the critical retromer component VPS35, we demonstrate a specific role for this endosomal sorting complex in the trafficking of AMPA receptors during NMDA-receptor-dependent LTP at mature hippocampal synapses. The impairment of LTP due to VPS35 knockdown was mechanistically independent of any role of the retromer in the production of Aβ from APP. Finally, we find surprising differences between Alzheimer's- and Parkinson's-disease-linked VPS35 mutations in supporting this pathway. These findings demonstrate a key role for the retromer in LTP and provide insights into how retromer malfunction in the mature brain may contribute to symptoms of common neurodegenerative diseases. VIDEO ABSTRACT.

Detection and characterization of individual endocytosis of AMPA-type glutamate receptor around postsynaptic membrane

Synaptic plasticity such as long-term depression (LTD) has been regarded as a cellular mechanism of learning and memory. LTD is expressed by the decrease in number of postsynaptic AMPA-type receptor (AMPAR) at glutamatergic synapses. Although endocytosis is known to play an essential role in the decrease in AMPAR on postsynaptic membrane, the difficulty to detect individual endocytic events hampered clarification of AMPAR dynamics around synapses. Previously, we developed a method to induce formation of postsynaptic-like membrane (PSLM) on the glass surface and observed pHluorin-tagged AMPAR around PSLM with total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy. By this method, individual exocytosis of AMPAR-pHluorin was recorded in both PSLM and non-PSLM. In other studies, endocytic vesicles containing pHluorin-tagged receptors were visualized by changing extracellular pH. Here, we have combined PSLM formation method and rapid pH change method, and detected individual endocytic events of AMPAR around PSLM with high spatial and temporal resolutions. Endocytic events of AMPAR were characterized by comparison with those of transferrin receptor. Constitutive endocytosis of AMPAR was not dependent on clathrin and dynamin in contrast to that of transferrin receptor. However, AMPAR endocytosis triggered by LTD-inducing stimulation was clathrin- and dynamin-dependent.

GRASP1 Regulates Synaptic Plasticity and Learning through Endosomal Recycling of AMPA Receptors

Learning depends on experience-dependent modification of synaptic efficacy and neuronal connectivity in the brain. We provide direct evidence for physiological roles of the recycling endosome protein GRASP1 in glutamatergic synapse function and animal behavior. Mice lacking GRASP1 showed abnormal excitatory synapse number, synaptic plasticity, and hippocampal-dependent learning and memory due to a failure in learning-induced synaptic AMPAR incorporation. We identified two GRASP1 point mutations from intellectual disability (ID) patients that showed convergent disruptive effects on AMPAR recycling and glutamate uncaging-induced structural and functional plasticity. Wild-type GRASP1, but not ID mutants, rescued spine loss in hippocampal CA1 neurons in Grasp1 knockout mice. Together, these results demonstrate a requirement for normal recycling endosome function in AMPAR-dependent synaptic function and neuronal connectivity in vivo, and suggest a potential role for GRASP1 in the pathophysiology of human cognitive disorders.

Trafficking of calcium-permeable and calcium-impermeable AMPA receptors in nucleus accumbens medium spiny neurons co-cultured with prefrontal cortex neurons

AMPA receptor (AMPAR) transmission onto medium spiny neurons (MSNs) of the adult rat nucleus accumbens (NAc) is normally dominated by GluA2-containing, Ca²⁺-impermeable AMPAR (CI-AMPARs). However, GluA2-lacking, Ca²⁺-permeable AMPA receptors (CP-AMPARs) accumulate after prolonged withdrawal from extended-access cocaine self-administration and thereafter their activation is required for the intensified (incubated) cue-induced cocaine craving that characterizes prolonged withdrawal from such regimens. These findings suggest the existence of mechanisms in NAc MSNs that differentially regulate CI-AMPARs and CP-AMPARs. Here, we compared trafficking of GluA1A2 CI-AMPARs and homomeric GluA1 CP-AMPARs using immunocytochemical assays in cultured NAc MSNs plated with prefrontal cortical neurons to restore excitatory inputs. We began by evaluating constitutive internalization of surface receptors and found that this occurs more rapidly for CP-AMPARs. Next, we studied receptor insertion into the membrane; combined with past results, the present findings suggest that activation of protein kinase A accelerates insertion of both CP-AMPARs and CI-AMPARs. We also studied constitutive cycling (net loss of receptors from the membrane under conditions where internalization and recycling are both occurring). Interestingly, although CP-AMPARs exhibit faster constitutive internalization, they cycle at similar rates as CI-AMPARs, suggesting faster reinsertion of CP-AMPARs. In studies of synaptic scaling, long-term (24 h) activity blockade increased surface expression and cycling rates of CI-AMPARs but not CP-AMPARs, whereas long-term increases in activity produced more pronounced scaling down of CI-AMPARs than CP-AMPARs but did not alter receptor cycling. These findings can be used to evaluate and generate hypotheses regarding AMPAR plasticity in the rat NAc following cocaine exposure.

Mass Spectrometry-Based Approaches to Understand the Molecular Basis of Memory

The central nervous system is responsible for an array of cognitive functions such as memory, learning, language, and attention. These processes tend to take place in distinct brain regions; yet, they need to be integrated to give rise to adaptive or meaningful behavior. Since cognitive processes result from underlying cellular and molecular changes, genomics and transcriptomics assays have been applied to human and animal models to understand such events. Nevertheless, genes and RNAs are not the end products of most biological functions. In order to gain further insights toward the understanding of brain processes, the field of proteomics has been of increasing importance in the past years. Advancements in liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) have enabled the identification and quantification of thousands of proteins with high accuracy and sensitivity, fostering a revolution in the neurosciences. Herein, we review the molecular bases of explicit memory in the hippocampus. We outline the principles of mass spectrometry (MS)-based proteomics, highlighting the use of this analytical tool to study memory formation. In addition, we discuss MS-based targeted approaches as the future of protein analysis.

Quantitative proteomics analysis of zebrafish exposed to sub-lethal dosages of β-methyl-amino-L-alanine (BMAA)

The non-protein amino acid β-methylamino-L-alanine (BMAA) is a neurotoxin present in microalgae and shown to accumulate in the food web. BMAA has been linked to the complex neurodegenerative disorder of Guam and to increased incidents sporadic ALS. Two main neurotoxic routes are suggested; an excitotoxic by acting as an agonist towards glutamate receptors and a metabolic by misincorporating into cellular proteins. We have used zebrafish, an increasingly used model for neurodegenerative diseases, to further identify signaling components involved in BMAA-induced toxicity. Zebrafish embryos were exposed to sub-lethal dosages of BMAA and a label-free proteomics analysis was conducted on larvae 4 days post fertilization. The exposed larvae showed no developmental abnormalities, but a reduced heart rate and increased expression of GSK3 isoforms. Search towards a reviewed database containing 2968 entries identified 480 proteins. Only 17 of these were regulated 2-fold or more in the exposed larvae. Seven of these proteins could be associated to glutamate receptor signaling and recycling. The remaining nine have all been linked to disturbance in protein homeostasis, reactive oxygen species (ROS) development or neuronal cell death. We also found that BMAA influenced the endocannabinoid system by up-regulation of fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) and that FAAH inhibitor URB597 reduced the BMAA effect on heart rate and GSK3 expression.

Distinct subcellular localization of alternative splicing variants of EFA6D, a guanine nucleotide exchange factor for Arf6, in the mouse brain

EFA6D (guanine nucleotide exchange factor for ADP-ribosylation factor 6 [Arf6]D) is also known as EFA6R, Psd3, and HCA67. It is the fourth member of the EFA6 family with guanine nucleotide exchange activity for Arf6, a small guanosine triphosphatase (GTPase) that regulates endosomal trafficking and actin cytoskeleton remodeling. We propose a classification and nomenclature of 10 EFA6D variants deposited in the GenBank database as EFA6D1a, 1b, 1c, 1d, 1s, 2a, 2b, 2c, 2d, and 2s based on the combination of N-terminal and C-terminal insertions. Polymerase chain reaction analysis showed the expression of all EFA6D variants except for variants a and d in the adult mouse brain. Immunoblotting analysis with novel variant-specific antibodies showed the endogenous expression of EFA6D1b, EFA6D1c, and EFA6D1s at the protein level, with the highest expression being EFA6D1s, in the brain. Immunoblotting analysis of forebrain subcellular fractions showed the distinct subcellular distribution of EFA6D1b/c and EFA6D1s. The immunohistochemical analysis revealed distinct but overlapping immunoreactive patterns between EFA6D1b/c and EFA6D1s in the mouse brain. In immunoelectron microscopic analyses of the hippocampal CA3 region, EFA6D1b/c was present predominantly in the mossy fiber axons of dentate granule cells, whereas EFA6D1s was present abundantly in the cell bodies, dendritic shafts, and spines of hippocampal pyramidal cells. These results provide the first anatomical evidence suggesting the functional diversity of EFA6D variants, particularly EFA6D1b/c and EFA6D1s, in neurons. J. Comp. Neurol. 524:2531-2552, 2016. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Subunit-selective N-Methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) Receptor Signaling through Brefeldin A-resistant Arf Guanine Nucleotide Exchange Factors BRAG1 and BRAG2 during Synapse Maturation

The maturation of glutamatergic synapses in the CNS is regulated by NMDA receptors (NMDARs) that gradually change from a GluN2B- to a GluN2A-dominated subunit composition during postnatal development. Here we show that NMDARs control the activity of the small GTPase ADP-ribosylation factor 6 (Arf6) by consecutively recruiting two related brefeldin A-resistant Arf guanine nucleotide exchange factors, BRAG1 and BRAG2, in a GluN2 subunit-dependent manner. In young cortical cultures, GluN2B and BRAG1 tonically activated Arf6. In mature cultures, Arf6 was activated through GluN2A and BRAG2 upon NMDA treatment, whereas the tonic Arf6 activation was not detectable any longer. This shift in Arf6 regulation and the associated drop in Arf6 activity were reversed by a knockdown of BRAG2. Given their sequential recruitment during development, we examined whether BRAG1 and BRAG2 influence synaptic currents in hippocampal CA1 pyramidal neurons using patch clamp recordings in acute slices from mice at different ages. The number of AMPA receptor (AMPAR) miniature events was reduced by depletion of BRAG1 but not by depletion of BRAG2 during the first 2 weeks after birth. In contrast, depletion of BRAG2 during postnatal weeks 4 and 5 reduced the number of AMPAR miniature events and compromised the quantal sizes of both AMPAR and NMDAR currents evoked at Schaffer collateral synapses. We conclude that both Arf6 activation through GluN2B-BRAG1 during early development and the transition from BRAG1- to BRAG2-dependent Arf6 signaling induced by the GluN2 subunit switch are critical for the development of mature glutamatergic synapses.

Postsynaptic Neurotransmitter Receptor Reserve Pools for Synaptic Potentiation

At excitatory and inhibitory synapses, an immediate transfer of additional neurotransmitter receptors from non-synaptic positions to the synapse mediates synaptic long-term potentiation (LTP). Different types of non-synaptic reserve pools permit the rapid supply of transmembrane neurotransmitter receptors. Recycling endosomes (REs) serve as an intracellular reservoir of receptors that is delivered to the plasma membrane on LTP induction. Furthermore, AMPA receptors at the non-synaptic plasma membrane provide an extrasynaptic reserve pool that is also important to potentiate synapse function. Finally, bidirectional synaptic versus extrasynaptic trapping of freely diffusing plasma membrane GABAA receptors (GABAARs) by scaffolding proteins modulates synaptic transmission. Here we discuss novel findings regarding neurotransmitter receptor reservoirs and potential reserve pool mechanisms for synaptic potentiation.

Arf6 regulates the cycling and the readily releasable pool of synaptic vesicles at hippocampal synapse

Recycling of synaptic vesicles (SVs) is a fundamental step in the process of neurotransmission. Endocytosed SV can travel directly into the recycling pool or recycle through endosomes but little is known about the molecular actors regulating the switch between these SV recycling routes. ADP ribosylation factor 6 (Arf6) is a small GTPase known to participate in constitutive trafficking between plasma membrane and early endosomes. Here, we have morphologically and functionally investigated Arf6-silenced hippocampal synapses and found an activity dependent accumulation of synaptic endosome-like organelles and increased release-competent docked SVs. These features were phenocopied by pharmacological blockage of Arf6 activation. The data reveal an unexpected role for this small GTPase in reducing the size of the readily releasable pool of SVs and in channeling retrieved SVs toward direct recycling rather than endosomal sorting. We propose that Arf6 acts at the presynapse to define the fate of an endocytosed SV.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.10116.001

Communication between neurons takes place at cell-to-cell contacts called synapses. Each synapse is formed between one neuron that sends the message, and another neuron that receives it. The neuron before the synapse – called the presynaptic neuron – contains packets called synaptic vesicles, which are full of chemical messengers ready to be released upon activity.

Accurate communication between neurons relies on the exact composition, and organized trafficking, of the synaptic vesicles when the neuron is active. Synapses also contain bigger structures, called endosomal structures, which may represent an intermediate station in which synaptic vesicle composition is controlled. However, the trafficking of synaptic vesicles through the endosomal structures is poorly understood.

Now, Tagliatti, Fadda et al. have revealed that a protein called Arf6 plays an important role in presynaptic neurons. The experiments involved rat neurons grown in the laboratory, and showed that Arf6 controls both the number of synaptic vesicles ready to be released and the trafficking of synaptic vesicles via endosomal structures in active neurons. The next step following on from these findings is to understand how Arf6 exerts its effects and how this protein is regulated in the presynaptic neuron.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.10116.002

Dendritic trafficking faces physiologically critical speed-precision tradeoffs

Nervous system function requires intracellular transport of channels, receptors, mRNAs, and other cargo throughout complex neuronal morphologies. Local signals such as synaptic input can regulate cargo trafficking, motivating the leading conceptual model of neuron-wide transport, sometimes called the 'sushi-belt model' (Doyle and Kiebler, 2011). Current theories and experiments are based on this model, yet its predictions are not rigorously understood. We formalized the sushi belt model mathematically, and show that it can achieve arbitrarily complex spatial distributions of cargo in reconstructed morphologies. However, the model also predicts an unavoidable, morphology dependent tradeoff between speed, precision and metabolic efficiency of cargo transport. With experimental estimates of trafficking kinetics, the model predicts delays of many hours or days for modestly accurate and efficient cargo delivery throughout a dendritic tree. These findings challenge current understanding of the efficacy of nucleus-to-synapse trafficking and may explain the prevalence of local biosynthesis in neurons.