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Fish FE, Nicastro AJ, Cardenas KL, Segre PS, Gough WT, Kahane-Rapport SR, St. Leger J, Goldbogen JA. Spin-leap performance by cetaceans is influenced by moment of inertia. J Exp Biol 2024; 227:jeb246433. [PMID: 38149677 PMCID: PMC10914021 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.246433] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2023] [Accepted: 12/15/2023] [Indexed: 12/28/2023]
Abstract
Cetaceans are capable of extraordinary locomotor behaviors in both water and air. Whales and dolphins can execute aerial leaps by swimming rapidly to the water surface to achieve an escape velocity. Previous research on spinner dolphins demonstrated the capability of leaping and completing multiple spins around their longitudinal axis with high angular velocities. This prior research suggested the slender body morphology of spinner dolphins together with the shapes and positions of their appendages allowed for rapid spins in the air. To test whether greater moments of inertia reduced spinning performance, videos and biologging data of cetaceans above and below the water surface were obtained. The principal factors affecting the number of aerial spins a cetacean can execute were moment of inertia and use of control surfaces for subsurface corkscrewing. For spinner dolphin, Pacific striped dolphin, bottlenose dolphin, minke whale and humpback whale, each with swim speeds of 6-7 m s-1, our model predicted that the number of aerial spins executable was 7, 2, 2, 0.76 and 1, respectively, which was consistent with observations. These data implied that the rate of subsurface corkscrewing was limited to 14.0, 6.8, 6.2, 2.2 and 0.75 rad s-1 for spinner dolphins, striped dolphins, bottlenose dolphins, minke whales and humpback whales, respectively. In our study, the moment of inertia of the cetaceans spanned a 21,000-fold range. The greater moments of inertia for the last four species produced large torques on control surfaces that limited subsurface corkscrewing motion and aerial maneuvers compared with spinner dolphins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frank E. Fish
- Department of Biology, West Chester University, West Chester, PA 19383, USA
| | - Anthony J. Nicastro
- Department of Physics and Engineering, West Chester University, West Chester, PA 19383, USA
| | | | - Paolo S. Segre
- Hopkins Marine Station of Stanford University, Pacific Grove, CA 93950, USA
| | - William T. Gough
- Hopkins Marine Station of Stanford University, Pacific Grove, CA 93950, USA
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2
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Videsen SKA, Simon M, Christiansen F, Friedlaender A, Goldbogen J, Malte H, Segre P, Wang T, Johnson M, Madsen PT. Cheap gulp foraging of a giga-predator enables efficient exploitation of sparse prey. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2023; 9:eade3889. [PMID: 37352356 PMCID: PMC10289661 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.ade3889] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2022] [Accepted: 05/22/2023] [Indexed: 06/25/2023]
Abstract
The giant rorqual whales are believed to have a massive food turnover driven by a high-intake lunge feeding style aptly described as the world's largest biomechanical action. This high-drag feeding behavior is thought to limit dive times and constrain rorquals to target only the densest prey patches, making them vulnerable to disturbance and habitat change. Using biologging tags to estimate energy expenditure as a function of feeding rates on 23 humpback whales, we show that lunge feeding is energetically cheap. Such inexpensive foraging means that rorquals are flexible in the quality of prey patches they exploit and therefore more resilient to environmental fluctuations and disturbance. As a consequence, the food turnover and hence the ecological role of these marine giants have likely been overestimated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simone K. A. Videsen
- Zoophysiology, Department of Biology, Aarhus University, Denmark
- Greenland Climate Research Centre, Greenland Institute of Natural Resources, Nuuk, Greenland
| | - Malene Simon
- Greenland Climate Research Centre, Greenland Institute of Natural Resources, Nuuk, Greenland
| | - Fredrik Christiansen
- Aarhus Institute of Advanced Studies, Aarhus University, DK-8000 Aarhus C, Denmark
- Marine Mammal Research, Department of Ecoscience, Aarhus University, 4000 Roskilde, Denmark
| | - Ari Friedlaender
- Institute of Marine Sciences, University of California, Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA, USA
| | - Jeremy Goldbogen
- Hopkins Marine Station, Department of Biology, Stanford University, Pacific Grove, CA, USA
| | - Hans Malte
- Zoophysiology, Department of Biology, Aarhus University, Denmark
| | - Paolo Segre
- Hopkins Marine Station, Department of Biology, Stanford University, Pacific Grove, CA, USA
| | - Tobias Wang
- Zoophysiology, Department of Biology, Aarhus University, Denmark
| | - Mark Johnson
- Zoophysiology, Department of Biology, Aarhus University, Denmark
- Aarhus Institute of Advanced Studies, Aarhus University, DK-8000 Aarhus C, Denmark
| | - Peter T. Madsen
- Zoophysiology, Department of Biology, Aarhus University, Denmark
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3
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Wiley DN, Zadra CJ, Friedlaender AS, Parks SE, Pensarosa A, Rogan A, Alex Shorter K, Urbán J, Kerr I. Deployment of biologging tags on free swimming large whales using uncrewed aerial systems. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2023; 10:221376. [PMID: 37090967 PMCID: PMC10113809 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.221376] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2022] [Accepted: 03/24/2023] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Suction-cup-attached biologging tags have led to major advances in our understanding of large whale behaviour. Getting close enough to a whale at sea to safely attach a tag is a major limiting factor when deploying these systems. Here we present an uncrewed aerial system (UAS)-based tagging technique for free-swimming large whales and provide data on efficacy from field testing on blue (Balaenoptera musculus) and fin (B. physalus) whales. Rapid transit speed and the bird's-eye view of the animal during UAS tagging contributed to the technique's success. During 8 days of field testing, we had 29 occasions when a focal animal was identified for attempted tagging and tags were successfully attached 21 times. The technique was efficient, with mean flight time of 2 min 45 s from launch to deployment and a mean distance of 490 m from the launch vessel to tagged animal, reducing potential adverse effects resulting from close approaches for tagging. These data indicate that UAS are capable of attaching biologging tags to free-swimming large whales quickly and from large distances, potentially increasing success rates, decreasing attempt times, and reducing animal disruption during tagging.
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Affiliation(s)
- David N. Wiley
- Stellwagen Bank National Marine Sanctuary, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Ocean Services, 175 Edward Foster Road, Scituate, MA 02066, USA
| | | | - Ari S. Friedlaender
- Institute for Marine Sciences, University of California Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz 95064, CA, USA
| | - Susan E. Parks
- Department of Biology, Syracuse University, 114 Life Science Complex, Syracuse, NY 13244, USA
| | - Alicia Pensarosa
- Ocean Alliance, Inc., 32 Horton Street, Gloucester, MA 01930, USA
| | - Andy Rogan
- Ocean Alliance, Inc., 32 Horton Street, Gloucester, MA 01930, USA
| | - K. Alex Shorter
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Michigan, 2350 Hayward, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Jorge Urbán
- Department of the Coastal and Marine Sciences, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California Sur, La Paz 23084, Mexico
| | - Iain Kerr
- Ocean Alliance, Inc., 32 Horton Street, Gloucester, MA 01930, USA
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4
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Segre PS, Gough WT, Roualdes EA, Cade DE, Czapanskiy MF, Fahlbusch J, Kahane-Rapport SR, Oestreich WK, Bejder L, Bierlich KC, Burrows JA, Calambokidis J, Chenoweth EM, di Clemente J, Durban JW, Fearnbach H, Fish FE, Friedlaender AS, Hegelund P, Johnston DW, Nowacek DP, Oudejans MG, Penry GS, Potvin J, Simon M, Stanworth A, Straley JM, Szabo A, Videsen SKA, Visser F, Weir CR, Wiley DN, Goldbogen JA. Scaling of maneuvering performance in baleen whales: larger whales outperform expectations. J Exp Biol 2022; 225:274595. [PMID: 35234874 PMCID: PMC8976943 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.243224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2021] [Accepted: 01/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Despite their enormous size, whales make their living as voracious predators. To catch their much smaller, more maneuverable prey, they have developed several unique locomotor strategies that require high energetic input, high mechanical power output and a surprising degree of agility. To better understand how body size affects maneuverability at the largest scale, we used bio-logging data, aerial photogrammetry and a high-throughput approach to quantify the maneuvering performance of seven species of free-swimming baleen whale. We found that as body size increases, absolute maneuvering performance decreases: larger whales use lower accelerations and perform slower pitch-changes, rolls and turns than smaller species. We also found that baleen whales exhibit positive allometry of maneuvering performance: relative to their body size, larger whales use higher accelerations, and perform faster pitch-changes, rolls and certain types of turns than smaller species. However, not all maneuvers were impacted by body size in the same way, and we found that larger whales behaviorally adjust for their decreased agility by using turns that they can perform more effectively. The positive allometry of maneuvering performance suggests that large whales have compensated for their increased body size by evolving more effective control surfaces and by preferentially selecting maneuvers that play to their strengths.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paolo S Segre
- Hopkins Marine Station, Stanford University, Pacific Grove, CA 93950, USA
| | - William T Gough
- Hopkins Marine Station, Stanford University, Pacific Grove, CA 93950, USA
| | - Edward A Roualdes
- Department of Mathematics and Statistics, California State University, Chico, Chico, CA 95929, USA
| | - David E Cade
- Hopkins Marine Station, Stanford University, Pacific Grove, CA 93950, USA.,Institute of Marine Sciences, University of California, Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA 95064, USA
| | - Max F Czapanskiy
- Hopkins Marine Station, Stanford University, Pacific Grove, CA 93950, USA
| | - James Fahlbusch
- Hopkins Marine Station, Stanford University, Pacific Grove, CA 93950, USA.,Cascadia Research Collective, Olympia, WA 98501, USA
| | - Shirel R Kahane-Rapport
- Hopkins Marine Station, Stanford University, Pacific Grove, CA 93950, USA.,Department of Biological Science, California State University, Fullerton, Fullerton, CA 92834, USA
| | | | - Lars Bejder
- Marine Mammal Research Program, Hawaii Institute of Marine Biology, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Kaneohe, HI 96744, USA.,Zoophysiology, Department of Bioscience, Aarhus University, 8000 Aarhus C, Denmark
| | - K C Bierlich
- Division of Marine Science and Conservation, Duke University Marine Laboratory, Beaufort, NC 28516, USA.,Marine Mammal Institute, Hatfield Marine Science Center, Oregon State University, Newport, OR 97365, USA
| | - Julia A Burrows
- Division of Marine Science and Conservation, Duke University Marine Laboratory, Beaufort, NC 28516, USA.,Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | | | - Ellen M Chenoweth
- University of Alaska Fairbanks, Fairbanks, AK 99775, USA.,Department of Natural Sciences, University of Alaska Southeast, AK 99835, USA
| | - Jacopo di Clemente
- Marine Mammal Research, Department of Ecoscience, Aarhus University, 8000 Aarhus C, Denmark.,Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, 2200 Copenhagen N, Denmark.,Department of Biology, University of Southern Denmark, 5230 Odense M, Denmark
| | - John W Durban
- Southall Environmental Associates, Inc., Aptos, CA 95003, USA
| | - Holly Fearnbach
- SR3, SeaLife Response, Rehabilitation and Research, Des Moines, WA 98198, USA
| | - Frank E Fish
- Department of Biology, West Chester University, PA 19383, USA
| | - Ari S Friedlaender
- Institute of Marine Sciences, University of California, Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA 95064, USA
| | - Peter Hegelund
- Greenland Climate Research Centre, Greenland Institute of Natural Resources, Nuuk 3900, Greenland
| | - David W Johnston
- Division of Marine Science and Conservation, Duke University Marine Laboratory, Beaufort, NC 28516, USA
| | - Douglas P Nowacek
- Nicholas School of the Environment and Pratt School of Engineering, Duke University Marine Lab, Beaufort, NC 28516, USA
| | | | - Gwenith S Penry
- Institute for Coastal and Marine Research, Nelson Mandela University, Gqeberha 6031, South Africa
| | - Jean Potvin
- Department of Physics, Saint Louis University, St Louis, MO 63103, USA
| | - Malene Simon
- Greenland Climate Research Centre, Greenland Institute of Natural Resources, Nuuk 3900, Greenland
| | | | - Janice M Straley
- Department of Natural Sciences, University of Alaska Southeast, AK 99835, USA
| | - Andrew Szabo
- Alaska Whale Foundation, Petersburg, AK 99833, USA
| | - Simone K A Videsen
- Zoophysiology, Department of Bioscience, Aarhus University, 8000 Aarhus C, Denmark
| | - Fleur Visser
- Kelp Marine Research, 1624 CJ Hoorn, The Netherlands.,Department of Freshwater and Marine Ecology, IBED, University of Amsterdam, 1090 GE Amsterdam, The Netherlands.,Department of Coastal Systems, Royal Netherlands Institute for Sea Research, Texel, 1790 AB Den Burg, The Netherlands
| | | | - David N Wiley
- NOAA/Stellwagen Bank National Marine Sanctuary, Scituate, MA 02066, USA
| | - Jeremy A Goldbogen
- Hopkins Marine Station, Stanford University, Pacific Grove, CA 93950, USA
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5
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Rudd JL, Bartolomeu T, Dolton HR, Exeter OM, Kerry C, Hawkes LA, Henderson SM, Shirley M, Witt MJ. Basking shark sub-surface behaviour revealed by animal-towed cameras. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0253388. [PMID: 34320007 PMCID: PMC8318306 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0253388] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2021] [Accepted: 06/03/2021] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
While biologging tags have answered a wealth of ecological questions, the drivers and consequences of movement and activity often remain difficult to ascertain, particularly marine vertebrates which are difficult to observe directly. Basking sharks, the second largest shark species in the world, aggregate in the summer in key foraging sites but despite advances in biologging technologies, little is known about their breeding ecology and sub-surface behaviour. Advances in camera technologies holds potential for filling in these knowledge gaps by providing environmental context and validating behaviours recorded with conventional telemetry. Six basking sharks were tagged at their feeding site in the Sea of Hebrides, Scotland, with towed cameras combined with time-depth recorders and satellite telemetry. Cameras recorded a cumulative 123 hours of video data over an average 64-hour deployment and confirmed the position of the sharks within the water column. Feeding events only occurred within a metre depth and made up ¾ of the time spent swimming near the surface. Sharks maintained similar tail beat frequencies regardless of whether feeding, swimming near the surface or the seabed, where they spent surprisingly up to 88% of daylight hours. This study reported the first complete breaching event and the first sub-surface putative courtship display, with nose-to-tail chasing, parallel swimming as well as the first observation of grouping behaviour near the seabed. Social groups of sharks are thought to be very short term and sporadic, and may play a role in finding breeding partners, particularly in solitary sharks which may use aggregations as an opportunity to breed. In situ observation of basking sharks at their seasonal aggregation site through animal borne cameras revealed unprecedented insight into the social and environmental context of basking shark behaviour which were previously limited to surface observations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica L. Rudd
- Hatherly Laboratories, University of Exeter, College of Life & Environmental Sciences, Exeter, United Kingdom
| | | | - Haley R. Dolton
- Environment and Sustainability Institute, University of Exeter, Penryn, United Kingdom
| | - Owen M. Exeter
- Environment and Sustainability Institute, University of Exeter, Penryn, United Kingdom
| | - Christopher Kerry
- Environment and Sustainability Institute, University of Exeter, Penryn, United Kingdom
| | - Lucy A. Hawkes
- Hatherly Laboratories, University of Exeter, College of Life & Environmental Sciences, Exeter, United Kingdom
| | | | | | - Matthew J. Witt
- Hatherly Laboratories, University of Exeter, College of Life & Environmental Sciences, Exeter, United Kingdom
- Environment and Sustainability Institute, University of Exeter, Penryn, United Kingdom
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6
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Peterman DJ, Ritterbush KA. Vertical escape tactics and movement potential of orthoconic cephalopods. PeerJ 2021; 9:e11797. [PMID: 34316410 PMCID: PMC8288114 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.11797] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2021] [Accepted: 06/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Measuring locomotion tactics available to ancient sea animals can link functional morphology with evolution and ecology over geologic timescales. Externally-shelled cephalopods are particularly important for their central roles in marine trophic exchanges, but most fossil taxa lack sufficient modern analogues for comparison. In particular, phylogenetically diverse cephalopods produced orthoconic conchs (straight shells) repeatedly through time. Persistent re-evolution of this morphotype suggests that it possesses adaptive value. Practical lateral propulsion is ruled out as an adaptive driver among orthoconic cephalopods due to the stable, vertical orientations of taxa lacking sufficient counterweights. However, this constraint grants the possibility of rapid (or at least efficient) vertical propulsion. We experiment with this form of movement using 3D-printed models of Baculites compressus, weighted to mimic hydrostatic properties inferred by virtual models. Furthermore, model buoyancy was manipulated to impart simulated thrust within four independent scenarios (Nautilus-like cruising thrust; a similar thrust scaled by the mantle cavity of Sepia; sustained peak Nautilus-like thrust; and passive, slightly negative buoyancy). Each model was monitored underwater with two submerged cameras as they rose/fell over ~2 m, and their kinematics were computed with 3D motion tracking. Our results demonstrate that orthocones require very low input thrust for high output in movement and velocity. With Nautilus-like peak thrust, the model reaches velocities of 1.2 m/s (2.1 body lengths per second) within one second starting from a static initial condition. While cephalopods with orthoconic conchs likely assumed a variety of life habits, these experiments illuminate some first-order constraints. Low hydrodynamic drag inferred by vertical displacement suggests that vertical migration would incur very low metabolic cost. While these cephalopods likely assumed low energy lifestyles day-to-day, they may have had a fighting chance to escape from larger, faster predators by performing quick, upward dodges. The current experiments suggest that orthocones sacrifice horizontal mobility and maneuverability in exchange for highly streamlined, vertically-stable, upwardly-motile conchs.
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Affiliation(s)
- David J Peterman
- Department of Geology and Geophysics, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, United States
| | - Kathleen A Ritterbush
- Department of Geology and Geophysics, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, United States
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7
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Gough WT, Smith HJ, Savoca MS, Czapanskiy MF, Fish FE, Potvin J, Bierlich KC, Cade DE, Di Clemente J, Kennedy J, Segre P, Stanworth A, Weir C, Goldbogen JA. Scaling of oscillatory kinematics and Froude efficiency in baleen whales. J Exp Biol 2021; 224:269076. [PMID: 34109418 PMCID: PMC8317509 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.237586] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2020] [Accepted: 06/03/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
High efficiency lunate-tail swimming with high-aspect-ratio lifting surfaces has evolved in many vertebrate lineages, from fish to cetaceans. Baleen whales (Mysticeti) are the largest swimming animals that exhibit this locomotor strategy, and present an ideal study system to examine how morphology and the kinematics of swimming scale to the largest body sizes. We used data from whale-borne inertial sensors coupled with morphometric measurements from aerial drones to calculate the hydrodynamic performance of oscillatory swimming in six baleen whale species ranging in body length from 5 to 25 m (fin whale, Balaenoptera physalus; Bryde's whale, Balaenoptera edeni; sei whale, Balaenoptera borealis; Antarctic minke whale, Balaenoptera bonaerensis; humpback whale, Megaptera novaeangliae; and blue whale, Balaenoptera musculus). We found that mass-specific thrust increased with both swimming speed and body size. Froude efficiency, defined as the ratio of useful power output to the rate of energy input ( Sloop, 1978), generally increased with swimming speed but decreased on average with increasing body size. This finding is contrary to previous results in smaller animals, where Froude efficiency increased with body size. Although our empirically parameterized estimates for swimming baleen whale drag were higher than those of a simple gliding model, oscillatory locomotion at this scale exhibits generally high Froude efficiency as in other adept swimmers. Our results quantify the fine-scale kinematics and estimate the hydrodynamics of routine and energetically expensive swimming modes at the largest scale.
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Affiliation(s)
- William T Gough
- Hopkins Marine Station, Stanford University, Pacific Grove, CA 93950, USA
| | - Hayden J Smith
- Hopkins Marine Station, Stanford University, Pacific Grove, CA 93950, USA.,Department of Physics, Southwestern University, Georgetown, TX 78626, USA
| | - Matthew S Savoca
- Hopkins Marine Station, Stanford University, Pacific Grove, CA 93950, USA
| | - Max F Czapanskiy
- Hopkins Marine Station, Stanford University, Pacific Grove, CA 93950, USA
| | - Frank E Fish
- Department of Biology, West Chester University, West Chester, PA 19383, USA
| | - Jean Potvin
- Department of Physics, Saint Louis University, Saint Louis, MO 63103, USA
| | - K C Bierlich
- Nicholas School of the Environment, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| | - David E Cade
- Hopkins Marine Station, Stanford University, Pacific Grove, CA 93950, USA.,Long Marine Laboratory, University of California Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA 95064, USA
| | | | - John Kennedy
- Department of Physics, Saint Louis University, Saint Louis, MO 63103, USA
| | - Paolo Segre
- Hopkins Marine Station, Stanford University, Pacific Grove, CA 93950, USA
| | | | - Caroline Weir
- Falklands Conservation, Stanley FIQQ 1ZZ, Falkland Islands
| | - Jeremy A Goldbogen
- Hopkins Marine Station, Stanford University, Pacific Grove, CA 93950, USA
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8
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Potvin J, Cade DE, Werth AJ, Shadwick RE, Goldbogen JA. Rorqual Lunge-Feeding Energetics Near and Away from the Kinematic Threshold of Optimal Efficiency. Integr Org Biol 2021; 3:obab005. [PMID: 34104873 PMCID: PMC8179629 DOI: 10.1093/iob/obab005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Humpback and blue whales are large baleen-bearing cetaceans, which use a unique prey-acquisition strategy—lunge feeding—to engulf entire patches of large plankton or schools of forage fish and the water in which they are embedded. Dynamically, and while foraging on krill, lunge-feeding incurs metabolic expenditures estimated at up to 20.0 MJ. Because of prey abundance and its capture in bulk, lunge feeding is carried out at high acquired-to-expended energy ratios of up to 30 at the largest body sizes (∼27 m). We use bio-logging tag data and the work-energy theorem to show that when krill-feeding at depth while using a wide range of prey approach swimming speeds (2–5 m/s), rorquals generate significant and widely varying metabolic power output during engulfment, typically ranging from 10 to 50 times the basal metabolic rate of land mammals. At equal prey field density, such output variations lower their feeding efficiency two- to three-fold at high foraging speeds, thereby allowing slow and smaller rorquals to feed more efficiently than fast and larger rorquals. The analysis also shows how the slowest speeds of harvest so far measured may be connected to the biomechanics of the buccal cavity and the prey’s ability to collectively avoid engulfment. Such minimal speeds are important as they generate the most efficient lunges. Sommaire Les rorquals à bosse et rorquals bleus sont des baleines à fanons qui utilisent une technique d’alimentation unique impliquant une approche avec élan pour engouffrer de larges quantités de plancton et bancs de petits poissons, ainsi que la masse d’eau dans laquelle ces proies sont situés. Du point de vue de la dynamique, et durant l’approche et engouffrement de krill, leurs dépenses énergétiques sont estimées jusqu’à 20.0 MJ. À cause de l’abondance de leurs proies et capture en masse, cette technique d’alimentation est effectuée à des rapports d’efficacité énergétique (acquise -versus- dépensée) estimés aux environs de 30 dans le cas des plus grandes baleines (27 m). Nous utilisons les données recueillies par des capteurs de bio-enregistrement ainsi que le théorème reliant l’énergie à l’effort pour démontrer comment les rorquals s’alimentant sur le krill à grandes profondeurs, et à des vitesses variant entre 2 et 5 m/s, maintiennent des taux de dépenses énergétiques entre 10 et 50 fois le taux métabolique basal des mammifères terrestres. À densités de proies égales, ces variations d’énergie utilisée peuvent réduire le rapport d’efficacité énergétique par des facteurs entre 2x et 3x, donc permettant aux petits et plus lents rorquals de chasser avec une efficacité comparable à celle des rorquals les plus grands et rapides. Notre analyse démontre aussi comment des vitesses d’approche plus lentes peuvent être reliées à la biomécanique de leur poche ventrale extensible, et à l’habilitée des proies à éviter d’être engouffrer. Ces minimums de vitesses sont importants car ils permettent une alimentation plus efficace énergétiquement.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Potvin
- Department of Physics, Saint Louis University, St. Louis, MO 63103, USA
| | - D E Cade
- Institute of Marine Sciences, University of California Santa Cruz, Sant Cruz, CA 95060, USA
| | - A J Werth
- Department of Biology, Hampden-Sydney College, Hampden-Sydney, VA 23943, USA
| | - R E Shadwick
- Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - J A Goldbogen
- Hopkins Marine Station, Stanford University, Pacific Grove, CA 93950, USA
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9
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Rudd JL, Exeter OM, Hall J, Hall G, Henderson SM, Kerry C, Witt MJ, Hawkes LA. High resolution biologging of breaching by the world's second largest shark species. Sci Rep 2021; 11:5236. [PMID: 33664360 PMCID: PMC7933335 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-84670-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2020] [Accepted: 02/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Basking sharks, the world's second largest fish, are endangered globally following two centuries of large-scale exploitation for their oily livers. In the northeast Atlantic, they seasonally gather in key sites, including the western Scottish Isles, where they feed on plankton, but their breeding grounds are currently completely unknown. Using high-resolution three-axis accelerometry and depth logging, we present the first direct records of breaching by basking sharks over 41 days. We show that basking sharks breach both during the night and day, starting at approximately 20 m depth and can breach multiple times in short succession. We also present early evidence of potential lateralisation in basking sharks. Given the energetic nature of breaching, it should have an important biological function, but this remains unclear.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica L Rudd
- Hatherly Laboratories, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Prince of Wales Road, Exeter, EX4 4PS, UK
| | - Owen M Exeter
- Hatherly Laboratories, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Prince of Wales Road, Exeter, EX4 4PS, UK.,Environment and Sustainability Institute, University of Exeter, Penryn Campus, Cornwall, TR10 9FE, UK.,Centre for Ecology and Conservation, University of Exeter, Penryn Campus, Cornwall, TR10 9FE, UK
| | - Jackie Hall
- Manx Basking Shark Watch, Glen Chass Farmhouse, Glen Chass, Port St Mary, Isle of Man, IM9 5PJ, UK
| | - Graham Hall
- Manx Basking Shark Watch, Glen Chass Farmhouse, Glen Chass, Port St Mary, Isle of Man, IM9 5PJ, UK
| | | | - Christopher Kerry
- Hatherly Laboratories, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Prince of Wales Road, Exeter, EX4 4PS, UK.,Environment and Sustainability Institute, University of Exeter, Penryn Campus, Cornwall, TR10 9FE, UK.,Centre for Ecology and Conservation, University of Exeter, Penryn Campus, Cornwall, TR10 9FE, UK
| | - Matthew J Witt
- Hatherly Laboratories, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Prince of Wales Road, Exeter, EX4 4PS, UK. .,Environment and Sustainability Institute, University of Exeter, Penryn Campus, Cornwall, TR10 9FE, UK.
| | - Lucy A Hawkes
- Hatherly Laboratories, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Prince of Wales Road, Exeter, EX4 4PS, UK.,Centre for Ecology and Conservation, University of Exeter, Penryn Campus, Cornwall, TR10 9FE, UK
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Abstract
A whale leaping above the surface expends an enormous amount of energy, displaying its health and strength to peers and potential mates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander J Werth
- Department of Biology, Hampden-Sydney College, Hampden-Sydney, United States
| | - Charles L Lemon
- Department of Biology, Hampden-Sydney College, Hampden-Sydney, United States
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