Normal hematologic and serum biochemical reference intervals for juvenile wild turkeys

Investigation of the Formal Pathogenesis of Green Liver Discoloration in Organically Reared Female Bronze Turkeys (Melleagris gallovapo)

Green liver discoloration (GL) in fattening turkeys is suspected to be a multifactorial disease complex with a compromised immune system as the key factor. This study aimed to identify the formal pathogenesis of GL and to investigate possible nutritional influences. A total of 360 Bronze turkey hens out of 10 flocks from 5 fattening farms were necropsied for detection of GL during 2 consecutive trials on 2 examination dates each (70th to 75th and 120th to 127th day of fattening, respectively). At each examination date, hematological and clinical chemistry analyses, as well as determination of vitamin E and selenium concentrations in the liver, were carried out in 6 hens with (if applicable) and 6 hens without GL, representing a total of 130 individuals. Raw nutrient, energy, amino acid, bulk and trace element, and vitamin E and D₃ concentrations were analyzed in feed samples for each of the five feeding phases during each trial. The results of the hematological analyses, clinical chemistry analyses, and determination of vitamin E and selenium liver concentrations were statistically evaluated between: (i) individuals with and without GL, and (ii) individuals from flocks with and without turkeys with GL. At both fattening stages, the occurrence of GL was characterized by an inflammatory reaction. A subacute inflammatory reaction was detected in the early fattening stage, indicating a viral cause of the disease. In the late fattening stage, acute inflammation indicated a bacterial cause of the disease. The results of the feed sample analyses of the different flocks were generally quite homogeneous. However, the nutrient and energy content of the feed likely contribute to GL pathogenesis.

Revisiting glucose regulation in birds - A negative model of diabetes complications

Birds naturally have blood glucose concentrations that are nearly double levels measured for mammals of similar body size and studies have shown that birds are resistant to insulin-mediated glucose uptake into tissues. While a combination of high blood glucose and insulin resistance is associated with diabetes-related pathologies in mammals, birds do not develop such complications. Moreover, studies have shown that birds are resistant to oxidative stress and protein glycation and in fact, live longer than similar-sized mammals. This review seeks to explore how birds regulate blood glucose as well as various theories that might explain their apparent resistance to insulin-mediated glucose uptake and adaptations that enable them to thrive in a state of relative hyperglycemia.

Synergistic action of Viteselen with anti-Fasciola drug as a tool for improving fertility and hemato-biochemical biomarkers in Fasciola infected sheep

Fasciolosis causes public health problems and economic losses all over the world. The present study aimed to evaluate the synergistic action between Viteselen (anti-oxidant) and specific anti-Fasciola drug [Triclalbendazole (TCBZ)] for improving the body condition of F. gigantica naturally infected sheep with reference to some hematological and biochemical biomarkers in their sera. Animals were divided into five groups include G-1 as control non-infected animals, G-2 to G-5 are Fasciola naturally infected animals. G-2 are non-treated animals, G-3 treated with TCBZ, animals in G-4 were injected by Viteselen and those in G-5 were treated by both TCBZ and Viteselen. The results revealed a significant decrease in mean eggs in feces and F. gigantica circulating antigens (FCAg) in sera of TCBZ treated sheep after the 1st week post treatment. Complete disappearance of eggs from feces of drug treated groups was recorded at 21st d.p.t. While the value of FCAg decreased to negative at 14th d.p.t. The highest significant improvement (p < 0.05) in the estimated hematological parameters (RBCs, Hb and TLC), liver enzymes (AST and ALT), oxidative stress and anti-oxidant markers (TAC, MDA, SOD and GSH) and reproductive hormones (Progesterone and Estradiol) was recorded in animals in G-5 followed by G-3. While non-significant improvement was recorded in animals in G-4 in comparison with those in the control group. This improvement increased with increasing the time post treatment. In conclusion; using of Viteselen in association with specific anti-parasitic drug improved the general health parameters and reproductive performance of the investigated sheep.

Influence of environmental enrichment on circulating white blood cell counts and behavior of female turkeys

Under commercial conditions turkeys are housed in large groups in poorly structured environments. This leads to stress and subsequently to pecking and cannibalism. Environmental enrichment is suggested to reduce stress and feather pecking, thus leading to an increase of the overall flock health. However, the effect of increasing age on the use of enrichment elements and on the behavior repertoire as well as its correlation with health parameters has scarcely been studied. Therefore, our objective was to investigate the influence of environmental enrichment on the behavioral repertoire and on health parameters of turkeys. In 3 consecutive trials, female turkeys were housed up to 12 wk either in an unstructured (control group) or enriched environment (EE group) featuring elevated plateaus at different levels (“turkey tree”). Behavior parameters, clinical health, and immune parameters were determined at selected time points. The percentage of birds using the turkey tree increased with age up to 55 to 77% at 22 to 30 d post hatch (dph). Thereafter, the number of birds located on the turkey tree decreased to 25 to 32% at 73 to 79 dph. Feather pecking and fighting was significantly lower in the EE group compared to the control group in 2 and 3 trials, respectively (P < 0.05). The integrity of feathers and integument, scored in the head/neck, wing, and tail regions was repeatedly better in the EE birds compared to control birds at most investigated time points (P < 0.05), suggesting a reduction in stress related aggression by the use of the turkey tree. Head pecking, running and flying activity, foraging, and preening were overall comparable between the EE and the control group (P > 0.05). Humoral immunity as determined by vaccination-induced anti-Newcastle disease virus antibody titers was not affected by the turkey tree use. The flow cytometric evaluation of blood monocyte and T-lymphocyte numbers showed no repeatable difference between control and EE groups. Interestingly, compared to the control groups, EE birds displayed significantly higher numbers of circulating MHC class II⁺ lymphocytes and lower numbers of thrombocytes at various time points compared to controls (P < 0.05). This study provides clear evidence that environmental enrichment with plateaus not only leads to an altered behavioral repertoire but also modifies some of the investigated immune parameters, implying that EE may have a modulatory effect on turkeys’ immunity and overall fitness. Further studies are needed to understand the correlation between behavior and health parameters in birds more closely.

Blood analytes of immature Kemp's ridley sea turtles (Lepidochelys kempii) from Georgia, USA: reference intervals and body size correlations

Health assessments of wildlife species are becoming increasingly important in an ever-changing environment. Kemp's ridley sea turtles (Lepidochelys kempii; hereafter, Kemp's ridleys) are critically endangered and incur several on-going threats to their population recovery; therefore, it is imperative to advance the understanding of baseline blood analyte data as a diagnostic and monitoring tool. For in-water, trawl-captured, immature Kemp's ridleys (minimum N = 31) from Georgia, USA, the objectives of this study were to (1) establish reference intervals (RIs) for packed cell volume (PCV) and 27 plasma biochemistry analytes and (2) determine length-specific relationships in blood analytes. We observed significant positive correlations between minimum straight carapace length and PCV, amylase, calcium:phosphorus ratio, cholesterol, magnesium, triglycerides, total solids, total protein and all protein fractions (e.g. alpha-, beta- and gamma-globulins); aspartate aminotransferase and chloride showed significant negative relationships. These results suggest that certain blood analytes in Kemp's ridleys change as these animals grow, presumptively due to somatic growth and dietary shifts. The information presented herein, in due consideration of capture technique that may have impacted glucose and potassium concentrations, represents the first report of blood analyte RIs for Kemp's ridley sea turtles established by guidelines of the American Society for Veterinary Clinical Pathology and will have direct applications for stranded individuals in rehabilitative care and for future investigations into the health status of wild individuals from this population.

Flow-cytometric analysis of circulating leukocyte populations in turkeys: Establishment of a whole blood analysis approach and investigations on possible influencing factors

The blood cell counting methods used for diagnostic and research purposes in turkeys are, up to date, inferior to the techniques established for mammals and chickens. While microscopic counts are time consuming, previous flow cytometric approaches did not cover all blood cell types of interest due to the lack of turkey-specific markers for the different cell populations. Moreover, it is unknown to what extent the different leukocyte populations are affected by host and environmental factors including age, breed of the bird, and housing environment, respectively. In this study we established a whole blood based flow cytometric analysis method for turkeys. This method was used to determine baseline values depending on the age of the birds as well as under consideration of variations between trials and animal room effects. During three trials whole blood samples of B.U.T. 6 female turkeys were collected to analyze different leukocyte concentrations (cells/μl whole blood). In the first trial one group and in the second and third trial two groups with 22 birds/group were housed. Blood samples were collected at days one, 23, 43, 60, and 88 post hatch and concentrations of monocytes, MHC class II-positive, CD4⁺, and CD8⁺ lymphocytes, as well as thrombocytes and granulocytes were determined by flow cytometric analysis. Concentrations of all identified populations were not only influenced by the bird's age (p < 0.05), they varied also among trials (p < 0.05) and even for some of the populations between animal rooms within the same trial despite comparable housing and management conditions. Therefore, for the establishment of baseline values for leucocyte concentrations in whole blood effects of age and housing have to be considered. In addition, our data emphasize the importance of the establishment of baseline values for different age groups, as age had the strongest effect on the blood cell numbers in this study.

Breed-Specific Haematologic Reference Values in Adult Turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo) in the Humid Tropics of Nigeria

One hundred (50 males and 50 females) B-not strain indigenous turkeys, Meleagris gallopavo, were used to determine the reference values for their haematological parameters. The turkeys were housed in the poultry unit and jugular venepunctures were used to collect their blood. The haematological parameters were determined using standard procedures. The mean values of: the packed cell volume (PCV; 37.29 ± 0.37 %), red blood cell (RBC) counts (2.50 ± 0.44 × 106.µl−1), haemoglobin concentration (Hbc; 10.89 ± 0.34 g.dl−1), mean corpuscular volume (MCV; 150.63 ± 0.73 fl), mean corpuscular haemoglobin (MCH; 44.29 ± 1.78 pg), mean corpuscular haemoglobin concentration (MCHC; 29.10 ± 0.73 g.dl−1), and white blood cell (WBC) counts (12.41 ± 0.83 × 103 µl−1) were determined. No significant differences were found between the male and female B-not strain turkeys in this study. The results will help in the interpretation of cases of disease when there are variations in the values and serve as baseline data for B-not strain of turkeys in the humid tropics.

Serological and haematological values in geriatric broad-breasted white turkeys

Blood samples from 1-, 5- and 10-year-old broad-breasted white turkeys were used to determine haematological and serum values. There were 8 turkeys in each age group. Mean haematocrit, haemoglobin and creatinine values were higher in the 1-year-old than in 10-year-old turkeys. Mean alanine aminotransferase was greater in 1 year old than in 10 year olds and greater in 5 year olds than in 10 year olds. Aspartate aminotransferase values were significantly different between all age groups. Mean alkaline phosphatase was less in 1-year-old than in 10-year-old turkeys. There were no significant differences between the three groups for cholesterol, glucose, total protein, albumin, globulin, calcium and bilirubin. All male turkeys had higher haemoglobin and haematocrit values than age-matched females. These data will help establish basic background references values in geriatric turkeys used in research.

Influence of season and sex on hemato-biochemical traits in adult turkeys under arid tropical environment

Aim:

The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of season and sex on hemato-biochemical parameters of turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) in the arid tropical environment.

Materials and Methods:

The experiment was conducted on 20-week old turkeys consisting of 20 males and 20 females. Blood was collected from all turkeys during January and May. Hemoglobin (Hb), red blood cell (RBC), packed cell volume (PCV), mean corpuscular volume (MCV), mean corpuscular hemoglobin (MCH), and mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration (MCHC) were estimated in whole blood and glucose, protein, albumin, globulin, A/G ratio, calcium, phosphorus, alanine aminotransferase (ALT), and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) in serum.

Result:

Season has significant (p<0.05) effect on Hb concentration, RBC, and PCV in both male and female. Male has significantly higher (p<0.05) Hb concentration, RBC, and PCV. There is no significant effect of sex, and season was observed on MCV, MCH, and MCHC. Glucose, protein, albumin, globulin, and A/G ratio were significantly (p<0.05) affected by season and sex. AST and ALT were significantly (p<0.05) affected by season in both sexes. There is no significant difference was recorded on calcium, phosphorus due to season and sex.

Conclusion:

Under arid tropical environment, turkey hemato-biochemical parameters are influenced by both sex and season.

The haematological profile of female bronze turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo) vaccinated with various commercial strains of Newcastle disease

The effects of vaccination on avian blood parameters are poorly understood. The present study was designed to evaluate whether different strains (Ulster 2C, B1, live LaSota and inactivated LaSota) of Newcastle disease vaccines had an effect on the haematological profile of female turkeys. Seventy-five female turkeys were allocated to treatment groups according to vaccination strain. All the birds, except those in the control group, were vaccinated at 32 weeks of age and revaccinated at 40 and 48 weeks of age. Blood samples were obtained for haematological analyses and serum samples for the haemagglutination inhibition test. Haemoglobin concentration was significantly lower (p &lt; 0.05) in vaccinated female turkeys than in the control birds 28 days after vaccination. Monocytes were significantly higher (p &lt; 0.05) in 44-week-old female turkeys vaccinated with inactivated LaSota strain compared with the other groups. Turkeys vaccinated with the B1 strain showed significantly higher (p &lt; 0.05) total white blood cell counts compared with the other groups vaccinated with various commercial strains of the Newcastle disease virus. In conclusion, female turkeys showed significant differences in haemoglobin concentrations, monocytes and white blood cell counts when vaccinated against Newcastle disease.

Haematological and biochemical parameters during the laying period in common pheasant hens housed in enhanced cages

The development of selected haematological and biochemical parameters during the laying period was monitored in common pheasant hens housed in an enhanced cage system. The cages were enhanced by the addition of two perches and a shelter formed by strips of cloth hanging in the corner of the cage. The results showed significant changes in the haematological and biochemical parameters monitored during egg laying. At the time when laying capacity approached a maximum, a decrease was observed (P < 0.05) in haematocrit, erythrocytes, and haemoglobin values, whereas monocytes, eosinophils, the heterophil/lymphocyte ratio, phosphorus, and calcium exhibited an increase (P < 0.05). At the end of the laying period, an increase (P < 0.05) was recorded in the count of leukocytes, heterophils, lymphocytes and basophils, the heterophil to lymphocyte ratio, and the concentrations of aspartate aminotransferase, cholesterol, phosphorus, and calcium, whereas lower values (P < 0.05) were recorded for haematocrit and plasma total protein in comparison with the values of the indicators at the beginning of the laying period. The results provide new information about dynamic changes in selected haematological and biochemical parameters in clinically healthy common pheasant hens during the laying period.

Haematology and biochemistry in healthy young pheasants and red-legged partridges and effects of spironucleosis on these parameters

Plasma biochemical and haematological parameters were examined in 4-week-old to 12-week-old game birds. Healthy, uninfected pheasants and partridges had similar levels of total protein, albumin, osmolality, Na+, Cl-, K+, Mg2+ and glucose. Triglyceride, globulin and Ca2+ were significantly higher and PO43- was lower in the partridges. Pheasants carrying a light to moderate infection with Spironucleus had significantly lower total protein, albumin, osmolality, Na+, Cl-, Ca2+ and PO43-. In severely affected pheasants, the osmolality, Na+ and Cl- fell further. Triglyceride and glucose were significantly lower than in healthy birds, and Mg2+ was higher. Similar data were obtained from infected partridges. Red cell parameters rose significantly in pheasants severely affected by spironucleosis, and the percent of heterophils was significantly higher and lymphocytes and basophils lower in their blood smears. The breast and leg muscle wet weight from severely affected pheasants was 22.2 and 37.7% that of uninfected birds, although the water content of the breast muscle was significantly higher.

Developmental dynamics of some blood biochemical parameters in the growing turkey (Meleagris gallopavo)

Blood serum clinical biochemical parameters of fasted BUT Big 8 male turkeys were determined at the ages of 3 days, 4, 8, 12, 16 and 20 weeks, for a follow-up of the developmental changes of some serum metabolites, enzymes and ions. The serum protein content (total protein, albumin, globulin) increased with age, indicating also the moulting-associated metabolic changes in the age interval from the 8th to the 12th weeks. Creatinine was shown to have a peak at 3 days of age (role of muscle activity in thermogenesis), while urate concentration sensitively reflected the dietary protein amount. Serum triglycerides peaked at the time of yolk catabolism, while cholesterol was shown to indicate the moulting, as was serum malondialdehyde. Serum sodium content increased throughout the study. Alanine aminotransferase and aspartate aminotransferase activities increased along the ontogeny, while alkaline phosphatase activity decreased in parallel with the growth. Serum creatine kinase activity showed an over one-magnitude increase. General metabolic and enzymatic alterations were characteristic and applicable for the description of the ontogenetic development of a precocial (post-hatch triglyceride peak), large bodied, meat-type (lactate dehydrogenase, continuously increasing creatine kinase) bird species.