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Kunkel MR, Berghaus RD, Martin JA, Mead DG, Ruder MG, Nemeth NM. Storage time and temperature of filter paper strips affect anti-West Nile virus antibody detection in 2 galliform species. J Vet Diagn Invest 2023; 35:399-403. [PMID: 37129000 PMCID: PMC10331388 DOI: 10.1177/10406387231170795] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/03/2023] Open
Abstract
The effects of filter paper strip (FPS) storage time and temperature on antibody detection are poorly understood despite widespread use in wildlife research. We collected sera and FPSs from 23 wild turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo) and 20 northern bobwhites (Colinus virginianus) experimentally infected with West Nile virus (WNV) to compare FPS storage methods with WNV plaque reduction neutralization test (PRNT) sensitivity. FPS storage methods included: immediate elution after drying, and storage at -20°C for 3 mo, -20°C for 6 mo, room temperature (RT) for 3 mo, and RT for 6 mo prior to elution. FPS eluates and sera were co-titrated to determine endpoint antibody titers, which were compared between FPS sera eluted immediately and sera, and among FPS eluates that underwent different storage conditions. Antibody titers were ~4-fold less in FPS sera eluted immediately versus sera, and dropped more frequently below PRNT detection threshold in northern bobwhites, which had ~10-fold lower serum antibody titers than wild turkeys. Antibody titers were lower in FPS samples stored at RT and for 6 mo. WNV serologic surveys may result in falsely low seroprevalence estimates if FPSs are stored at RT for ≥ 3 mo before elution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melanie R. Kunkel
- Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
| | - Roy D. Berghaus
- Departments of Population Health, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
| | - James A. Martin
- College of Veterinary Medicine, and Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources and Savannah River Ecology Laboratory, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
| | - Daniel G. Mead
- Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
| | - Mark G. Ruder
- Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
| | - Nicole M. Nemeth
- Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
- Pathology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
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Mencattelli G, Iapaolo F, Polci A, Marcacci M, Di Gennaro A, Teodori L, Curini V, Di Lollo V, Secondini B, Scialabba S, Gobbi M, Manuali E, Cammà C, Rosà R, Rizzoli A, Monaco F, Savini G. West Nile Virus Lineage 2 Overwintering in Italy. Trop Med Infect Dis 2022; 7:tropicalmed7080160. [PMID: 36006252 PMCID: PMC9414329 DOI: 10.3390/tropicalmed7080160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2022] [Revised: 07/27/2022] [Accepted: 07/29/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
In January 2022, West Nile virus (WNV) lineage 2 (L2) was detected in an adult female goshawk rescued near Perugia in the region of Umbria (Italy). The animal showed neurological symptoms and died 15 days after its recovery in a wildlife rescue center. This was the second case of WNV infection recorded in birds in the Umbria region during the cold season, when mosquitoes, the main WNV vectors, are usually not active. According to the National Surveillance Plan, the Umbria region is included amongst the WNV low-risk areas. The necropsy evidenced generalized pallor of the mucous membranes, mild splenomegaly, and cerebral edema. WNV L2 was detected in the brain, heart, kidney, and spleen homogenate using specific RT-PCR. Subsequently, the extracted viral RNA was sequenced. A Bayesian phylogenetic analysis performed through a maximum-likelihood tree showed that the genome sequence clustered with the Italian strains within the European WNV strains among the central-southern European WNV L2 clade. These results, on the one hand, confirmed that the WNV L2 strains circulating in Italy are genetically stable and, on the other hand, evidenced a continuous WNV circulation in Italy throughout the year. In this report case, a bird-to-bird WNV transmission was suggested to support the virus overwintering. The potential transmission through the oral route in a predatory bird may explain the relatively rapid spread of WNV, as well as other flaviviruses characterized by similar transmission patterns. However, rodent-to-bird transmission or mosquito-to-bird transmission cannot be excluded, and further research is needed to better understand WNV transmission routes during the winter season in Italy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giulia Mencattelli
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell’Abruzzo e del Molise, 64100 Teramo, Italy; (F.I.); (A.P.); (M.M.); (A.D.G.); (L.T.); (V.C.); (V.D.L.); (B.S.); (S.S.); (C.C.); (F.M.); (G.S.)
- Center Agriculture Food Environment, University of Trento, 38098 Trento, Italy;
- Fondazione Edmund Mach, Research and Innovation Centre, San Michele all’Adige, 38098 Trento, Italy;
- Correspondence:
| | - Federica Iapaolo
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell’Abruzzo e del Molise, 64100 Teramo, Italy; (F.I.); (A.P.); (M.M.); (A.D.G.); (L.T.); (V.C.); (V.D.L.); (B.S.); (S.S.); (C.C.); (F.M.); (G.S.)
| | - Andrea Polci
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell’Abruzzo e del Molise, 64100 Teramo, Italy; (F.I.); (A.P.); (M.M.); (A.D.G.); (L.T.); (V.C.); (V.D.L.); (B.S.); (S.S.); (C.C.); (F.M.); (G.S.)
| | - Maurilia Marcacci
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell’Abruzzo e del Molise, 64100 Teramo, Italy; (F.I.); (A.P.); (M.M.); (A.D.G.); (L.T.); (V.C.); (V.D.L.); (B.S.); (S.S.); (C.C.); (F.M.); (G.S.)
| | - Annapia Di Gennaro
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell’Abruzzo e del Molise, 64100 Teramo, Italy; (F.I.); (A.P.); (M.M.); (A.D.G.); (L.T.); (V.C.); (V.D.L.); (B.S.); (S.S.); (C.C.); (F.M.); (G.S.)
| | - Liana Teodori
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell’Abruzzo e del Molise, 64100 Teramo, Italy; (F.I.); (A.P.); (M.M.); (A.D.G.); (L.T.); (V.C.); (V.D.L.); (B.S.); (S.S.); (C.C.); (F.M.); (G.S.)
| | - Valentina Curini
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell’Abruzzo e del Molise, 64100 Teramo, Italy; (F.I.); (A.P.); (M.M.); (A.D.G.); (L.T.); (V.C.); (V.D.L.); (B.S.); (S.S.); (C.C.); (F.M.); (G.S.)
| | - Valeria Di Lollo
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell’Abruzzo e del Molise, 64100 Teramo, Italy; (F.I.); (A.P.); (M.M.); (A.D.G.); (L.T.); (V.C.); (V.D.L.); (B.S.); (S.S.); (C.C.); (F.M.); (G.S.)
| | - Barbara Secondini
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell’Abruzzo e del Molise, 64100 Teramo, Italy; (F.I.); (A.P.); (M.M.); (A.D.G.); (L.T.); (V.C.); (V.D.L.); (B.S.); (S.S.); (C.C.); (F.M.); (G.S.)
| | - Silvia Scialabba
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell’Abruzzo e del Molise, 64100 Teramo, Italy; (F.I.); (A.P.); (M.M.); (A.D.G.); (L.T.); (V.C.); (V.D.L.); (B.S.); (S.S.); (C.C.); (F.M.); (G.S.)
| | - Marco Gobbi
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell’Umbria e delle Marche “Togo Rosati”, 06126 Perugia, Italy; (M.G.); (E.M.)
| | - Elisabetta Manuali
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell’Umbria e delle Marche “Togo Rosati”, 06126 Perugia, Italy; (M.G.); (E.M.)
| | - Cesare Cammà
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell’Abruzzo e del Molise, 64100 Teramo, Italy; (F.I.); (A.P.); (M.M.); (A.D.G.); (L.T.); (V.C.); (V.D.L.); (B.S.); (S.S.); (C.C.); (F.M.); (G.S.)
| | - Roberto Rosà
- Center Agriculture Food Environment, University of Trento, 38098 Trento, Italy;
| | - Annapaola Rizzoli
- Fondazione Edmund Mach, Research and Innovation Centre, San Michele all’Adige, 38098 Trento, Italy;
| | - Federica Monaco
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell’Abruzzo e del Molise, 64100 Teramo, Italy; (F.I.); (A.P.); (M.M.); (A.D.G.); (L.T.); (V.C.); (V.D.L.); (B.S.); (S.S.); (C.C.); (F.M.); (G.S.)
| | - Giovanni Savini
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell’Abruzzo e del Molise, 64100 Teramo, Italy; (F.I.); (A.P.); (M.M.); (A.D.G.); (L.T.); (V.C.); (V.D.L.); (B.S.); (S.S.); (C.C.); (F.M.); (G.S.)
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3
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Comparative Pathology of West Nile Virus in Humans and Non-Human Animals. Pathogens 2020; 9:pathogens9010048. [PMID: 31935992 PMCID: PMC7168622 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens9010048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2019] [Revised: 01/03/2020] [Accepted: 01/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
West Nile virus (WNV) continues to be a major cause of human arboviral neuroinvasive disease. Susceptible non-human vertebrates are particularly diverse, ranging from commonly affected birds and horses to less commonly affected species such as alligators. This review summarizes the pathology caused by West Nile virus during natural infections of humans and non-human animals. While the most well-known findings in human infection involve the central nervous system, WNV can also cause significant lesions in the heart, kidneys and eyes. Time has also revealed chronic neurologic sequelae related to prior human WNV infection. Similarly, neurologic disease is a prominent manifestation of WNV infection in most non-human non-host animals. However, in some avian species, which serve as the vertebrate host for WNV maintenance in nature, severe systemic disease can occur, with neurologic, cardiac, intestinal and renal injury leading to death. The pathology seen in experimental animal models of West Nile virus infection and knowledge gains on viral pathogenesis derived from these animal models are also briefly discussed. A gap in the current literature exists regarding the relationship between the neurotropic nature of WNV in vertebrates, virus propagation and transmission in nature. This and other knowledge gaps, and future directions for research into WNV pathology, are addressed.
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4
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Martin LB, Kernbach ME, Unnasch TR. Distinct effects of acute versus chronic corticosterone exposure on Zebra finch responses to West Nile virus. CONSERVATION PHYSIOLOGY 2019; 7:coz094. [PMID: 31824675 PMCID: PMC6894510 DOI: 10.1093/conphys/coz094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2019] [Revised: 06/28/2019] [Accepted: 12/03/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Wild animals are exposed to both short- (acute) and long-term (chronic) stressors. The glucocorticoid hormones, such as corticosterone (CORT), facilitate coping with such stressors, but these hormones can have quite distinct effects contingent on the duration of their elevation. Previously, we found that experimental elevation of CORT for 2 days (via implantation) affected zebra finch (Taeniopygia guttata) responses to West Nile virus (WNV). CORT-elevated birds had higher viremia for at least 2 days longer than controls, and West Nile virus (WNV)-associated mortality occurred only in CORT-elevated birds. Here, we queried how acute elevations of CORT, via injection an hour prior to WNV exposure, would affect host responses, as short-term CORT elevations can be protective in other species. Although CORT injections and implantations elevated circulating CORT to a similar degree, the type of CORT exposure had quite distinct effects on WNV responses. CORT-implanted individuals reached higher viremia and suffered more mortality to WNV than control and CORT-injected individuals. However, CORT-implanted birds maintained body mass better during infection than the other two groups. Our results further support the possibility that chronic physiological stress affects aspects of host competence and potentially community-level WNV disease dynamics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lynn B Martin
- Global Health and Infectious Disease Research Center, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33620, USA
| | - Meredith E Kernbach
- Global Health and Infectious Disease Research Center, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33620, USA
| | - Thomas R Unnasch
- Global Health and Infectious Disease Research Center, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33620, USA
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5
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Jiménez de Oya N, Escribano-Romero E, Blázquez AB, Martín-Acebes MA, Saiz JC. Current Progress of Avian Vaccines Against West Nile Virus. Vaccines (Basel) 2019; 7:vaccines7040126. [PMID: 31547632 PMCID: PMC6963603 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines7040126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2019] [Revised: 09/19/2019] [Accepted: 09/19/2019] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Birds are the main natural host of West Nile virus (WNV), the worldwide most distributed mosquito-borne flavivirus, but humans and equids can also be sporadic hosts. Many avian species have been reported as susceptible to WNV, particularly corvids. In the case that clinical disease develops in birds, this is due to virus invasion of different organs: liver, spleen, kidney, heart, and mainly the central nervous system, which can lead to death 24–48 h later. Nowadays, vaccines have only been licensed for use in equids; thus, the availability of avian vaccines would benefit bird populations, both domestic and wild ones. Such vaccines could be used in endangered species housed in rehabilitation and wildlife reserves, and in animals located at zoos and other recreational installations, but also in farm birds, and in those that are grown for hunting and restocking activities. Even more, controlling WNV infection in birds can also be useful to prevent its spread and limit outbreaks. So far, different commercial and experimental vaccines (inactivated, attenuated, and recombinant viruses, and subunits and DNA-based candidates) have been evaluated, with various regimens, both in domestic and wild avian species. However, there are still disadvantages that must be overcome before avian vaccination can be implemented, such as its cost-effectiveness for domestic birds since in many species the pathogenicity is low or zero, or the viability of being able to achieve collective immunity in wild birds in freedom. Here, a comprehensive review of what has been done until now in the field of avian vaccines against WNV is presented and discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nereida Jiménez de Oya
- Department of Biotechnology, National Agricultural and Food Research and Technology Institute (INIA), 28040 Madrid, Spain.
| | - Estela Escribano-Romero
- Department of Biotechnology, National Agricultural and Food Research and Technology Institute (INIA), 28040 Madrid, Spain.
| | - Ana-Belén Blázquez
- Department of Biotechnology, National Agricultural and Food Research and Technology Institute (INIA), 28040 Madrid, Spain.
| | - Miguel A Martín-Acebes
- Department of Biotechnology, National Agricultural and Food Research and Technology Institute (INIA), 28040 Madrid, Spain.
| | - Juan-Carlos Saiz
- Department of Biotechnology, National Agricultural and Food Research and Technology Institute (INIA), 28040 Madrid, Spain.
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6
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Fassbinder-Orth CA, Igl LD, Hahn DC, Watts KM, Wilcoxen TE, Ramos-Álvarez KR. Do Life History Traits Influence Patterns of Maternal Immune Elements in New World Blackbirds (Icteridae)? Integr Org Biol 2018. [DOI: 10.1093/iob/oby011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Avian immunology developed originally by investigating domesticated poultry species (Galliformes), but in recent decades eco-immunological studies of wild bird species have revealed that avian immune systems are more diverse than initially assumed. This study compares six immunological elements in eggs of six species within the same family, the New World blackbirds (Icteridae),whose members differ most notably in two life history parameters, brood parasitism and body size. We measured the maternal immune investment of passive immune components in both yolk and albumen: lysozyme, ovotransferrin, and immunoglobulins (Igs), and LPS-specific Igs. We predicted that brood parasites would have higher levels of immune activity for both innate and adaptive immunity compared with non-brood parasites, and that increased body size could increase microbial exposure of larger animals, resulting in an increase in some adaptive immune responses, such as LPS-specific Igs. We found that brood parasites had significantly higher levels of Igs and lysozyme levels in albumen, but significantly lower levels of Igs in yolk compared with non-brood parasites. Igs in yolk scaled according to body size, with the smallest organisms (the brood parasites) having the lowest levels, and the largest organism (common grackle) having the highest. Our results confirm the findings of other studies of comparative immunity among species in a single taxon that (1) similarities in immune investment cannot be assumed among closely related species and (2) single measures of immune defense cannot be assumed to be indicators of a species’ overall immune strategy, as life history traits can differentially affect immune responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- C A Fassbinder-Orth
- Department of Biology, Creighton University, 2500 California Plaza, Omaha, NE 68178, USA
| | - L D Igl
- U.S. Geological Survey, Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center, 8711 37th Street Southeast, Jamestown, ND 58401, USA
| | - D C Hahn
- U.S. Geological Survey, Patuxent Wildlife Research Center, 12110 Beech Forest Road Laurel, MD 20708, USA
| | - K M Watts
- Department of Biology, Creighton University, 2500 California Plaza, Omaha, NE 68178, USA
- Novozymes Blair, Inc., 600 South 1st Street, Blair, NE 68008, USA
| | - T E Wilcoxen
- Department of Biology, Millikin University, 1184 West Main Street, Decatur, IL 62522, USA
| | - K R Ramos-Álvarez
- Departamento de Recursos Naturales y Ambientales de Puerto Rico, Laboratorio de Investigaciones Pesqueras, P.O. Box 3665, Marina Station, Mayagüez, PR 00681, Puerto Rico
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7
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Díaz A, Flores FS, Quaglia AI, Contigiani MS. Evaluation of Argentinean Bird Species as Amplifying Hosts for St. Louis Encephalitis Virus (Flavivirus, Flaviviridae). Am J Trop Med Hyg 2018; 99:216-221. [PMID: 29761767 DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.17-0856] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
St.Louis encephalitis virus (SLEV) is an emerging human pathogen flavivirus in Argentina. Recently, it has reemerged in the United States. We evaluated the role as amplifying host of six resident bird species and analyzed their capacity as host during the 2005 encephalitis outbreak of SLEV in Córdoba. Eared Dove, Picui Ground Dove, and House Sparrow were the three species with highest host competence index. At a city level, Eared Dove and Picui Ground Dove were the most important amplifying hosts during the 2005 SLEV human outbreak in Córdoba city. This finding highlighted important differences in the SLEV ecology between Argentina and the United States. Characterizing and evaluating the SLEV hosts contribute to our knowledge about its ecology and could help us to understand the causes that promote its emergence as a human pathogen in South America.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrián Díaz
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biológicas y Tecnológicas, CONICET-Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Córdoba, Argentina.,Laboratorio de Arbovirus, Instituto de Virología "Dr. J. M. Vanella," Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Fernando S Flores
- Laboratorio de Arbovirus, Instituto de Virología "Dr. J. M. Vanella," Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Agustín I Quaglia
- Laboratorio de Arbovirus, Instituto de Virología "Dr. J. M. Vanella," Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Marta S Contigiani
- Laboratorio de Arbovirus, Instituto de Virología "Dr. J. M. Vanella," Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Córdoba, Argentina
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8
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Maharaj PD, Bosco-Lauth AM, Langevin SA, Anishchenko M, Bowen RA, Reisen WK, Brault AC. West Nile and St. Louis encephalitis viral genetic determinants of avian host competence. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2018; 12:e0006302. [PMID: 29447156 PMCID: PMC5831645 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0006302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2017] [Revised: 02/28/2018] [Accepted: 02/05/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
West Nile virus (WNV) and St. Louis encephalitis (SLEV) virus are enzootically maintained in North America in cycles involving the same mosquito vectors and similar avian hosts. However, these viruses exhibit dissimilar viremia and virulence phenotypes in birds: WNV is associated with high magnitude viremias that can result in mortality in certain species such as American crows (AMCRs, Corvus brachyrhynchos) whereas SLEV infection yields lower viremias that have not been associated with avian mortality. Cross-neutralization of these viruses in avian sera has been proposed to explain the reduced circulation of SLEV since the introduction of WNV in North America; however, in 2015, both viruses were the etiologic agents of concurrent human encephalitis outbreaks in Arizona, indicating the need to re-evaluate host factors and cross-neutralization responses as factors potentially affecting viral co-circulation. Reciprocal chimeric WNV and SLEV viruses were constructed by interchanging the pre-membrane (prM)-envelope (E) genes, and viruses subsequently generated were utilized herein for the inoculation of three different avian species: house sparrows (HOSPs; Passer domesticus), house finches (Haemorhous mexicanus) and AMCRs. Cross-protective immunity between parental and chimeric viruses were also assessed in HOSPs. Results indicated that the prM-E genes did not modulate avian replication or virulence differences between WNV and SLEV in any of the three avian species. However, WNV-prME proteins did dictate cross-protective immunity between these antigenically heterologous viruses. Our data provides further evidence of the important role that the WNV / SLEV viral non-structural genetic elements play in viral replication, avian host competence and virulence. Since the identification of West Nile virus (WNV) in North America in 1999, St. Louis encephalitis virus (SLEV) cases declined rapidly. Both viruses utilize similar avian hosts and vectors for maintenance of transmission cycles; however, they present different phenotypes in both vector and avian host. In birds, WNV develops high viremias and elicits mortality whereas SLEV has not been associated with avian virulence. West Nile viral non-structural genetic elements have been demonstrated herein to dictate higher viremias in competent avian hosts and virulence in AMCRs. In contrast, non-structural SLEV elements previously have been shown to dictate increased oral infectivity in Culex mosquitoes, likely as a compensation for the lower viremias generated by SLEV. These findings coupled with the co-circulation of WNV and SLEV in Arizona in 2015 demonstrate that pre-existing flaviviral immunity does not necessarily preclude concurrent circulation of these viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Payal D Maharaj
- Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, Arboviral Disease Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America.,Center for Vectorborne Disease Research and Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Angela M Bosco-Lauth
- Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, Arboviral Disease Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America.,Department of Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Stanley A Langevin
- Center for Vectorborne Disease Research and Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Michael Anishchenko
- Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, Arboviral Disease Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America.,Center for Vectorborne Disease Research and Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Richard A Bowen
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
| | - William K Reisen
- Center for Vectorborne Disease Research and Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Aaron C Brault
- Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, Arboviral Disease Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America.,Center for Vectorborne Disease Research and Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California, United States of America
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9
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Mosquitoes as Arbovirus Vectors: From Species Identification to Vector Competence. PARASITOLOGY RESEARCH MONOGRAPHS 2018. [PMCID: PMC7122353 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-94075-5_9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Mosquitoes and other arthropods transmit a large number of medically important pathogens, in particular viruses. These arthropod-borne viruses (arboviruses) include a wide variety of RNA viruses belonging to the Flaviviridae family (West Nile virus (WNV), Usutu virus (USUV), Dengue virus (DENV), Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), Zika virus (ZIKV)), the Togaviridae family (Chikungunya virus (CHIKV)), and Bunyavirales order (Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV)) (please refer also to Table 9.1). Arboviral transmission to humans and livestock constitutes a major threat to public health and economy as illustrated by the emergence of ZIKV in the Americas, RVFV outbreaks in Africa, and the worldwide outbreaks of DENV. To answer the question if those viral pathogens also pose a risk to Europe, we need to first answer the key questions (summarized in Fig. 9.1):Who could contribute to such an outbreak? Information about mosquito species resident or imported, potential hosts and viruses able to infect vectors and hosts in Germany is needed. Where would competent mosquito species meet favorable conditions for transmission? Information on the minimum requirements for efficient replication of the virus in a given vector species and subsequent transmission is needed. How do viruses and vectors interact to facilitate transmission? Information on the vector immunity, vector physiology, vector genetics, and vector microbiomes is needed.
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10
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More S, Bøtner A, Butterworth A, Calistri P, Depner K, Edwards S, Garin‐Bastuji B, Good M, Gortázar Schmidt C, Michel V, Miranda MA, Nielsen SS, Raj M, Sihvonen L, Spoolder H, Stegeman JA, Thulke H, Velarde A, Willeberg P, Winckler C, Baldinelli F, Broglia A, Dhollander S, Beltrán‐Beck B, Kohnle L, Morgado J, Bicout D. Assessment of listing and categorisation of animal diseases within the framework of the Animal Health Law (Regulation (EU) No 2016/429): West Nile fever. EFSA J 2017; 15:e04955. [PMID: 32625621 PMCID: PMC7009844 DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2017.4955] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
West Nile fever (WNF) has been assessed according to the criteria of the Animal Health Law (AHL), in particular criteria of Article 7 on disease profile and impacts, Article 5 on the eligibility of WNF to be listed, Article 9 for the categorisation of WNF according to disease prevention and control rules as in Annex IV and Article 8 on the list of animal species related to WNF. The assessment has been performed following a methodology composed of information collection and compilation, expert judgement on each criterion at individual and, if no consensus was reached before, also at collective level. The output is composed of the categorical answer, and for the questions where no consensus was reached, the different supporting views are reported. Details on the methodology used for this assessment are explained in a separate opinion. According to the assessment performed, WNF can be considered eligible to be listed for Union intervention as laid down in Article 5(3) of the AHL. The disease would comply with the criteria as in Sections 2 and 5 of Annex IV of the AHL, for the application of the disease prevention and control rules referred to in points (b) and (e) of Article 9(1). The animal species to be listed for WNF according to Article 8(3) criteria are several orders of birds and mammals as susceptible species and several families of birds as reservoir. Different mosquito species can serve as vectors.
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Reisen WK, Wheeler SS. Surveys for Antibodies Against Mosquitoborne Encephalitis Viruses in California Birds, 1996-2013. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2016; 16:264-82. [PMID: 26974395 PMCID: PMC4800269 DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2015.1888] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
From 1996 through 2013, 54,546 individual birds comprising 152 species and 7 orders were banded, bled, and released at four study areas within California, from which 28,388 additional serum samples were collected at one or more recapture encounters. Of these, 142, 99, and 1929 birds from 41 species were positive for neutralizing antibodies against western equine encephalomyelitis virus (WEEV), St. Louis encephalitis virus (SLEV), or West Nile virus (WNV) at initial capture or recapture, respectively. Overall, 83% of the positive serum samples were collected from five species: House Finch, House Sparrow, Mourning Dove, California Quail, and Western Scrub-Jay. Temporal data supported concurrent arbovirus surveillance and documented the disappearance of birds positive for WEEV in 2008 and SLEV in 2003 and the appearance of birds positive for WNV after its invasion in 2003. Results of these serosurveys agreed well with the host selection patterns of the Culex vectors as described from bloodmeal sequencing data and indicated that transmission of WNV seemed most effective within urban areas where avian and mosquito host diversity was limited to relatively few competent species.
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Affiliation(s)
- William K Reisen
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, Center for Vectorborne Diseases, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California , Davis, California
| | - Sarah S Wheeler
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, Center for Vectorborne Diseases, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California , Davis, California
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12
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Muturi EJ, Bara J. Sindbis virus interferes with dengue 4 virus replication and its potential transmission by Aedes albopictus. Parasit Vectors 2015; 8:65. [PMID: 25633862 PMCID: PMC4316403 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-015-0667-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2014] [Accepted: 01/16/2015] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Mosquitoes transmit a number of arboviruses associated with disease outbreaks in humans and other animals. The majority of medically important arboviruses belong to three families: Togaviridae, Flaviviridae and Bunyaviridae. Several members of these families have overlapping distributions and share common vectors, increasing the potential for arboviral coinfections. This study examined how two model viruses: Sindbis virus (SINV, Togaviridae: Alphavirus) and dengue-4 virus (DENV-4, Flaviviridae: Flavivirus) may interact in C6/36 Aedes albopictus cells and in the mosquito vector Ae. albopictus. Methods C6/36 cells were coinfected, superinfected, or singly infected with SINV and DENV-4 and the two viruses quantified at different time points. Four to seven day old adult females of Ae. albopictus were also fed blood containing one or both viruses and viral infection and dissemination rates determined. Results Sindbis virus suppressed replication of DENV-4 in C6/36 Ae. albopictus cells with greater inhibition occurring when the two arboviruses were inoculated simultaneously compared to sequentially. In addition, Ae. albopictus simultaneously exposed to both arboviruses had significantly lower DENV-4 infection and population dissemination rates compared to those exposed to DENV-4 alone. Conclusion These results suggest that certain Alphaviruses may interfere with DENV-4 transmission by suppressing its replication and increasing vector refractoriness. The findings provide important insights into the potential contribution of mixed arboviral infections to DENV transmission dynamics.
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Hahn DC, Summers SG, Genovese KJ, He H, Kogut MH. Enhanced innate immune responses in a brood parasitic cowbird species: Degranulation and oxidative burst. Avian Dis 2014; 57:285-9. [PMID: 24689187 DOI: 10.1637/10317-080412-reg.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
We examined the relative effectiveness of two innate immune responses in two species of New World blackbirds (Passeriformes, Icteridae) that differ in resistance to West Nile virus (WNV). We measured degranulation and oxidative burst, two fundamental components of phagocytosis, and we predicted that the functional effectiveness of these innate immune responses would correspond to the species' relative resistance to WNV. The brown-headed cowbird (Molothrus ater), an obligate brood parasite, had previously shown greater resistance to infection with WNV, lower viremia and faster recovery when infected, and lower subsequent antibody titers than the red-winged blackbird (Agelaius phoeniceus), a close relative that is not a brood parasite. We found that cowbird leukocytes were significantly more functionally efficient than those of the blackbird leukocytes and 50% more effective at killing the challenge bacteria. These results suggest that further examination of innate immunity in the cowbird may provide insight into adaptations that underlie its greater resistance to WNV. These results support an eco-immunological interpretation that species like the cowbird, which inhabit ecological niches with heightened exposure to parasites, experience evolutionary selection for more effective immune responses.
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Experimental infections of wild birds with West Nile virus. Viruses 2014; 6:752-81. [PMID: 24531334 PMCID: PMC3939481 DOI: 10.3390/v6020752] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2013] [Revised: 02/04/2014] [Accepted: 02/04/2014] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Avian models of West Nile virus (WNV) disease have become pivotal in the study of infection pathogenesis and transmission, despite the intrinsic constraints that represents this type of experimental research that needs to be conducted in biosecurity level 3 (BSL3) facilities. This review summarizes the main achievements of WNV experimental research carried out in wild birds, highlighting advantages and limitations of this model. Viral and host factors that determine the infection outcome are analyzed in detail, as well as recent discoveries about avian immunity, viral transmission, and persistence achieved through experimental research. Studies of laboratory infections in the natural host will help to understand variations in susceptibility and reservoir competence among bird species, as well as in the epidemiological patterns found in different affected areas.
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Gamino V, Höfle U. Pathology and tissue tropism of natural West Nile virus infection in birds: a review. Vet Res 2013; 44:39. [PMID: 23731695 PMCID: PMC3686667 DOI: 10.1186/1297-9716-44-39] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2013] [Accepted: 04/24/2013] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
West Nile virus (WNV) is a globally distributed arthropod-borne flavivirus capable of infecting a wide variety of vertebrates, with birds as its natural reservoir. Although it had been considered a pathogen of little importance for birds, from the 1990's, and especially after its introduction in the North American continent in 1999, thousands of birds have succumbed to West Nile infection. This review summarizes the pathogenesis and pathology of WNV infection in birds highlighting differences in lesion and antigen distribution and severity among bird orders and families. Despite significant species differences in susceptibility to infection, WNV associated lesions and viral antigen are present in the majority of organs of infected birds. The non-progressive, acute or more prolonged course of the disease accounts for part of the differences in lesion and viral antigen distribution and lesion severity. Most likely a combination of host variables and environmental factors in addition to the intrinsic virulence and pathogenicity of the infecting WNV strain influence the pathogenesis of the infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Virginia Gamino
- SaBio Instituto de Investigación en Recursos Cinegéticos IREC, (CSIC-UCLM-JCCM) Ronda de Toledo s/n, Ciudad Real 13005, Spain
| | - Ursula Höfle
- SaBio Instituto de Investigación en Recursos Cinegéticos IREC, (CSIC-UCLM-JCCM) Ronda de Toledo s/n, Ciudad Real 13005, Spain
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Hahn DC, Summers SG, Genovese KJ, He H, Kogut MH. Obligate Brood Parasites Show More Functionally Effective Innate Immune Responses: An Eco-immunological Hypothesis. Evol Biol 2013. [DOI: 10.1007/s11692-013-9231-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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17
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Lim SM, Koraka P, Osterhaus AD, Martina BE. West Nile virus: immunity and pathogenesis. Viruses 2011; 3:811-28. [PMID: 21994755 PMCID: PMC3185772 DOI: 10.3390/v3060811] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2011] [Revised: 05/26/2011] [Accepted: 05/27/2011] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
West Nile virus (WNV) is a neurotropic, arthropod-borne flavivirus that is maintained in an enzootic cycle between mosquitoes and birds, but can also infect and cause disease in horses and humans. WNV is endemic in parts of Africa, Europe, the Middle East, and Asia, and since 1999 has spread to North America, Mexico, South America, and the Caribbean. WNV infects the central nervous system (CNS) and can cause severe disease in a small minority of infected humans, mostly immunocompromised or the elderly. This review discusses some of the mechanisms by which the immune system can limit dissemination of WNV infection and elaborates on the mechanisms involved in pathogenesis. Reasons for susceptibility to WNV-associated neuroinvasive disease in less than 1% of cases remain unexplained, but one favored hypothesis is that the involvement of the CNS is associated with a weak immune response allowing robust WNV replication in the periphery and spread of the virus to the CNS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie M. Lim
- Department of Virology, Erasmus MC, P.O. Box 2040, 3000 CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands; E-Mails: (S.M.L.); (P.K.); (A.D.M.E.O.)
| | - Penelope Koraka
- Department of Virology, Erasmus MC, P.O. Box 2040, 3000 CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands; E-Mails: (S.M.L.); (P.K.); (A.D.M.E.O.)
| | - Albert D.M.E. Osterhaus
- Department of Virology, Erasmus MC, P.O. Box 2040, 3000 CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands; E-Mails: (S.M.L.); (P.K.); (A.D.M.E.O.)
| | - Byron E.E. Martina
- Department of Virology, Erasmus MC, P.O. Box 2040, 3000 CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands; E-Mails: (S.M.L.); (P.K.); (A.D.M.E.O.)
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Hahn DC, Reisen WK. Heightened Exposure to Parasites Favors the Evolution of Immunity in Brood Parasitic Cowbirds. Evol Biol 2011. [DOI: 10.1007/s11692-011-9112-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Abstract
Landscape epidemiology describes how the temporal dynamics of host, vector, and pathogen populations interact spatially within a permissive environment to enable transmission. The spatially defined focus, or nidus, of transmission may be characterized by vegetation as well as by climate, latitude, elevation, and geology. The ecological complexity, dimensions, and temporal stability of the nidus are determined largely by pathogen natural history and vector bionomics. Host populations, transmission efficiency, and therefore pathogen amplification vary spatially, thereby creating a heterogeneous surface that may be defined by remote sensing and statistical tools. The current review describes the evolution of landscape epidemiology as a science and exemplifies selected aspects by contrasting the ecology of two different recent disease outbreaks in North America caused by West Nile virus, an explosive, highly virulent mosquito-borne virus producing ephemeral nidi, and Borrelia burgdorferi, a slowly amplifying chronic pathogen producing semipermanent nidi.
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Affiliation(s)
- William K Reisen
- Center for Vectorborne Diseases and Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California-Davis, CA 95616, USA.
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20
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Pesko K, Mores CN. Effect of sequential exposure on infection and dissemination rates for West Nile and St. Louis encephalitis viruses in Culex quinquefasciatus. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2009; 9:281-6. [PMID: 19492941 DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2007.0281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
West Nile virus has spread rapidly throughout the United States since its introduction in 1999, into some areas that are also endemic for St. Louis encephalitis virus (SLEV). These viruses are in the same antigenic complex within the genus Flavivirus, family Flaviviridae. Further, both viruses are transmitted primarily by Culex spp. mosquitoes and use birds as amplifying hosts. These viruses could contemporaneously coinfect individual vectors wherein changes in mosquito immune responses might occur. To explore this possibility, we evaluated the effect of sequential infection with both West Nile virus and SLEV on the infection and dissemination rates of these viruses in the vector mosquito, Culex quinquefasciatus. Prior exposure to either virus lowered susceptibility to infection with the second virus, and lower dissemination rates of the second virus, compared to controls. Exposure to one virus followed by a second virus resulted in similar infection rates for the first virus to those of controls, but higher SLEV dissemination rates when exposed first to SLEV than in singly SLEV infected controls. While some mosquitoes became infected with both viruses, only one of those viruses disseminated from the midgut into the legs, indicating a midgut infection barrier to secondary infection. Lower infection rates in mosquitoes exposed to both viruses could change transmission patterns when these viruses are present at epizootic levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kendra Pesko
- Florida Medical Entomology Laboratory, University of Florida, Vero Beach, Florida, USA
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Winterhalter WE, Fedorka KM. Sex-specific variation in the emphasis, inducibility and timing of the post-mating immune response in Drosophila melanogaster. Proc Biol Sci 2009; 276:1109-17. [PMID: 19129115 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2008.1559] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Ecological immunology attempts to explain variation in immune function. Much of this work makes predictions about how potential hosts should invest in overall immunity. However, this 'overall' perspective under-emphasizes other critical aspects, such as the specificity, inducibility and timing of an immune response. Here, we investigate these aspects by examining gene regulation across several immune system components in both male and female Drosophila melanogaster prior to and after mating. To elucidate potentially important temporal dynamics, we also assayed several genes over time. We found that males and females emphasized different components of their immune system, however overall investment was similar. Specifically, the sexes emphasized different gene paralogues within major gene families, and males tended to invest more in gram-negative defence. By contrast, the inducibility of the immune response was both transient (lasting approx. 24 hours) and equal between the sexes. Furthermore, mating tended to induce humoral gene upregulation, while cell-mediated genes were unaffected. Within the humoral system, gram-negative bacterial defence genes exhibited a greater inducibility than those associated with fungal or gram-positive bacterial defence. Our results suggest that variation in the effectiveness of the immune response between the sexes may be driven by differences in emphasis rather than overall investment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wade E Winterhalter
- Department of Biology, University of Central Florida, 4000 Central Florida Boulevard, Orlando, FL 32816, USA
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Kilpatrick AM, LaDeau SL, Marra PP. Ecology of West Nile Virus Transmission and its Impact on Birds in the Western Hemisphere. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2007. [DOI: 10.1093/auk/124.4.1121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- A. Marm Kilpatrick
- Consortium for Conservation Medicine, 460 West 34th Street, 17th floor, New York, New York 10001, USA
| | - Shannon L. LaDeau
- Smithsonian Migratory Bird Center, National Zoological Park, P.O. Box 37012, MRC 5508, Washington, D.C. 20013, USA
| | - Peter P. Marra
- Smithsonian Migratory Bird Center, National Zoological Park, P.O. Box 37012, MRC 5508, Washington, D.C. 20013, USA
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