The impact of rape acknowledgment on survivor outcomes: The moderating effects of rape myth acceptance

Predicting Recovery Pathways in Jewish Ultra-Orthodox Intimate Partner Violence Survivors: A Structural Equation Modeling Approach

Cultural and religious norms, as well as trauma-related cognitions and recovery actions, are known to impact the well-being of survivors of intimate partner violence (IPV). Although acknowledged as a key component, there is scant research on the recovery trajectories of women who have experienced IPV, in particular on survivors from collectivistic societies such as the Jewish Ultra-Orthodox (JUO) community in Israel. A mediation model examined the recovery process of 261 Israeli JUO survivors. In particular, it tested whether the normalization of violence and women's endorsement of Jewish religious norms that justify violence would be directly and negatively associated with women's well-being and positively associated with psychopathology. Additionally, it examined whether women's normalization of violence and support of religious norms would positively predict women's negative trauma-related cognitions. In turn, these cognitions were expected to negatively predict women's engagement in recovery actions, help-seeking behaviors, and faith-based responses but positively predict disengagement responses. The model further posited that women's engagement in steps toward recovery, help-seeking behaviors, and faith-based responses would positively predict women's well-being and negatively predict psychopathology. In contrast, women's disengagement responses would negatively predict women's well-being and positively predict their psychopathology. Bootstrap results indicated that supporting religious norms positively predicted women's trauma-related cognitions, which then negatively predicted women's recovery actions, help-seeking behaviors, and faith-based responses but positively predicted women's disengagement responses. Women's recovery actions and faith-based responses positively predicted women's well-being, while disengagement responses positively predicted women's psychopathology. Contrary to expectations, help-seeking behaviors positively predicted psychopathology.

Childhood Adversity and Offense-Supportive Cognitions Among Czech Adults with a Sexual Interest in Violence or Children

Individuals with paraphilic interests in sexual violence or children may be more likely to sexually offend if they possess offense-supportive cognitions. These cognitions may develop in response to childhood adversity. However, this idea is largely based on research in men convicted of sexual offenses and may not generalize to non-incarcerated adults with paraphilic interests. In a sample of 178 adults screened for paraphilic interests in violence or children (from the general Czech population), we hypothesized that childhood sexual abuse and emotional neglect would be associated with offense-supportive cognitions about rape and child molestation. Participants came from a nationally representative sample of Czech adults and were selected if they self-reported high levels of sexual interest in violence and/or children. Participants completed an online survey with self-report measures of sexual orientation, offense-supportive cognitions (Bumby RAPE and MOLEST scales), and childhood sexual abuse and emotional neglect (Childhood Trauma Questionnaire). Controlling for gender, age, and sexual orientation, we found that both rape-supportive cognitions and child molestation-supportive cognitions were significantly associated with higher levels of childhood sexual abuse, but not emotional neglect. These findings indicate that childhood sexual abuse may lead to offense-supportive cognitions among men and women with paraphilia.

Sexual Violence in Military Service Members/Veterans Individual and Interpersonal Outcomes Associated with Single and Multiple Exposures to Civilian and Military Sexual Violence

Sexual harassment and violence is a grave public health concern and risk for revictimization increases following initial exposure. Studies of sexual revictimization in military samples are generally limited to women and are focused on rates of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), with no examination of how revictimization relates to interpersonal outcomes, such as relationship or sexual satisfaction. The current study addressed these gaps in a sample of 833 women and 556 men service members/veterans. Self-reported outcomes of PTSD, depression, suicidal ideation, sexual function, and relationship satisfaction were compared across those reporting exposure to sexual harassment and violence before the military only (i.e., pre-military), during the military only (i.e., military sexual harassment and violence [MSV]), before and during the military (i.e., revictimization), and to no exposure. More than half of women (51.14%, n = 426) reported revictimization and only 5.79% (n = 28) of men reported revictimization. Among women, those reporting MSV or revictimization tended to report higher PTSD, depression, and suicidal ideation relative to pre-military sexual violence and no sexual violence exposure. No interpersonal outcomes were significantly different among these sexual violence groups. Among men, revictimization was associated with higher PTSD, depression, and sexual compulsivity. PTSD and depression were also higher among those reporting MSV only. No effects were found for premilitary sexual trauma exposure only or relationship satisfaction for either group. Findings highlight the particularly bothersome nature of MSV, whether it occurred alone or in tandem with premilitary sexual violence. Findings also show unique gender differences across outcomes, suggesting interventions following sexual harassment and violence may differ for men and women.

Rape Myth Acceptance Buffers the Association Between Sexual Assault and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Symptoms Among College Students

Rape myths are cultural beliefs that invalidate, blame, and stigmatize rape survivors, thereby perpetuating sexual violence. Few studies have explored associations between rape myth acceptance (RMA) and mental health outcomes, but evidence suggests that RMA can buffer the mental health impact of some forms of sexual assault. The current study examined the buffering effect of RMA on depression and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms using self-report data from an online survey of 500 female college students. Findings provided support for the buffering effect of RMA on the association between any sexual assault and PTSD symptoms. Experiencing any sexual assault was significantly associated with greater PTSD symptoms among participants with low RMA, whereas this association was only marginally significant among those with high RMA. Findings demonstrate that there are some contexts in which high RMA might lessen the mental health impact of sexual assault. Thus, it is possible that as progress is made to dismantle rape myths in society, mental health symptoms amongst some survivors may exacerbate, thereby increasing the demand for mental health services.

Changes in Certitude, Adherence, and Attitude: Immediate Effects of Rape Myth Intervention on Jurors in a Mock Trial

Previous studies have demonstrated the prevalence and negative consequences of rape myths in various social contexts, including their impact on jury decision-making. The current study adopted a mixed methods design to explore how educating jurors about rape myths via a judge's direction affected their decision-making regarding the guilt or innocence of a defendant in a rape case. Data were obtained from two mock trials and 12 questionnaire responses. The sample consisted of 12 women participants aged from 20 to 25. The thematic analysis indicated that participants who received rape myths education exhibited resistance to rape myths, increased scrutiny of the defendant as opposed to the complainant, and less disbelief of the complainant's alleged behaviours. Quantitative analysis suggested a strong positive correlation between the understanding of rape myths education and its influence on decision making; however, this was only found in the intervention group. Findings showed insights into the possible advantages of rape myths education for jurors that were delivered via the judge's direction. Future research directions and implications were discussed.

Acceptance of rape myths and psychological symptoms: the indirect effect of self-blame

Objective: The current study examined the influence of rape myth acceptance on self-blame and psychological symptoms following a sexual assault. Participants: The sample included 280 female sexual assault survivors in college. Methods: In an online survey, participants completed the Sexual Experiences Survey - Short Form Victimization, Updated Illinois Rape Myth Acceptance Scale, Posttraumatic Cognitions Inventory, Patient Health Questionnaire - 9 item scale, and PTSD Checklist for DSM-5. Results: A significant indirect effect was found between acceptance of rape myths and PTSD symptoms via self-blame; acceptance of rape myths was positively associated with self-blame, which in turn was positively associated with PTSD symptoms. Conclusions: Clinicians working with survivors of sexual assault should assess for endorsement of rape myths and self-blame, as challenging posttraumatic cognitions has been shown to reduce symptoms of trauma.

It Happened to a Friend of Mine: The Influence of Perspective-taking on the Acknowledgment of Sexual Assault Following Ambiguous Sexual Encounters

Failure to acknowledge that one has been the victim of sexual violence is an important, yet understudied, barrier that prevents women from seeking appropriate support following sexual violence. Drawing from a literature of demonstrating the benefits of self-distancing when evaluating emotionally charged personal information, the effects of self-distancing on acknowledgment of sexual assault were tested. Four experimental studies (N_total = 1,609) manipulated perspective-taking, either by asking women to imagine a series of hypothetical sexual encounters as experiences that happened to themselves or to their friends, or by asking women to describe a sexual experience from a first- or third-person perspective. Findings from the studies suggest that taking another person's perspective can help women to label ambiguous sexual experiences as more inappropriate and coercive. Notably, this did not seem to stem from women downplaying or dismissing experiences when they imagined themselves, as they reported anticipating more negative and less positive emotions in the scenarios where they imagined themselves compared to a friend. Nonetheless, in spite of the stronger anticipated negative emotional response when imagining themselves, women were less open to information about resources associated with sexual assault and support when they imagined themselves compared to a friend. This pattern of findings replicated for own, past sexual experiences but only to the extent that women spontaneously engaged in distanced perspective-taking themselves. This research suggests in addition to using contextual information to disambiguate and determine whether a sexual experience was inappropriate, taking a distanced perspective might provide a route through which women can come to terms with the experience and open up to the use of community-based services and sexual assault resources.

"The Ugliness of It Seeps into Me": Experiences of Vicarious Trauma among Female Psychologists Treating Survivors of Sexual Assault

The current study explores the lived experiences of female psychologists who provide psychological treatment to women survivors of sexual assault. These practitioners are a population of special interest due to the frequency of their exposure to narratives and graphic images of sexual trauma. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 15 female South African psychologists. The data, which were analyzed using an interpretative phenomenological approach, revealed experiences characteristic of vicarious traumatization. Participants reported having an enhanced sense of personal vulnerability to sexual assault and heightened awareness of the betrayals of trust that women experience from male figures, which has led to increased mistrust of men and hypervigilance regarding the safety of their daughters. Internalization of feelings of helplessness experienced by the victim evoked self-blame for practitioners and appraisals of being complicit in abuse. Practitioners also experienced survivor guilt about being spared from harm. Symptoms of intrusive re-experiencing of client trauma and cognitive and behavioral disengagement were evident. These findings have important implications for clinical practice and underscore the necessity for clinicians to cultivate an awareness of the impact of treating sexual trauma and working in ways that are self-protective.

Differences in Rape Acknowledgment and Mental Health Outcomes Across Transgender, Nonbinary, and Cisgender Bisexual Youth

The purpose of this study was to document the rates of rape acknowledgment (labeling rape as rape rather than using a minimizing label) and the corresponding mental health correlates using the minority stress framework in a unique and vulnerable sample: racially diverse sexual and gender minority young adults. Participants were 245 young adults who identified their sexual orientation as under the bisexual umbrella. A total of 159 of these participants (65.2%) identified their gender identity as nonbinary. All participants completed a series of online questionnaires regarding their sexual victimization history, mental health outcomes (depression, anxiety, and posttraumatic stress disorder [PTSD]), and constructs relevant to minority stress theory (level of outness, internalized bisexual negativity, connection to LGBTQ [lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, questioning] community). Rape acknowledgment was significantly greater among gender nonbinary participants (79.9%) than among trans and cisgender male participants (17.9%). Lack of rape acknowledgment was associated with increased anxiety, depression, and PTSD. Outness was significantly associated with greater rape acknowledgment. Despite the highly increased vulnerability for sexual violence among sexual and gender minorities, very little is understood about the mechanisms of this increased vulnerability or their unique needs for recovery. The results of this study strongly suggest the importance of a minority stress framework for understanding this increased vulnerability and for designing sexual violence prevention and recovery interventions for sexual and gender minority populations.

Exploring ambivalent rape acknowledgment and posttraumatic stress symptoms among college women who have experienced rape: What's in a name?

The present study explored rape acknowledgment among 131 college women survivors of rape utilizing three subgroups: acknowledged rape, unacknowledged rape, and ambivalent acknowledgment. Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptom clusters and parameters of victimization and were compared between the subgroups. Of the participants, 28.2 % were classified as ambivalent rape acknowledgment, 49.6 % as acknowledged rape, and 22.1 % as unacknowledged rape. Across all four PTSD symptom clusters, the ambivalent acknowledgment group had significantly higher PTSD symptoms than the unacknowledged group. With the exception of hyperarousal symptoms, PTSD symptoms did not differ between the acknowledged and ambivalent acknowledgment groups. With regard to potential group differences in exposure to various rape tactics (i.e., physical force, threat, incapacitation), the acknowledged group indicated (a) exposure to a greater number of rape tactics relative to the other groups, (b) higher likelihood of endorsing rape via threat than the ambivalent acknowledgment group, and (c) more frequent endorsement of forcible rape than the unacknowledged group. Results are discussed in light of screening methods to assess for PTSD symptoms among rape survivors, as well as the recent changes to the Title IX law regarding sexual misconduct reports on college campuses.