Evaluation of linseed oil oleogels to partially replace pork backfat in fermented sausages

Characterization and classification of oleogels and edible oil using vibrational spectroscopy in tandem with one-class and multiclass chemometric methods

Oleogel represents a promising healthier alternative to act as a substitute for conventional fat in various food products. Oil selection is a crucial factor in determining the technological properties and applications of oleogels due to their distinct fatty acid composition, molecular weight, and thermal properties, as well as the presence of antioxidants and oxidative stability. Hence, the relevance of monitoring oleogel properties by non-destructive, eco-friendly, portable, fast, and effective techniques is a relevant task and constitutes an advance in the evaluation of oleogels quality. Thus, the present study aims to classify oleogels rapidly and reliably, without the use of chemicals, comparing two handheld near infrared (NIR) spectrometers and one portable Raman device. Furthermore, two different multivariate methods are compared for oleogel classification according to oil type. Three types of oleogels were prepared, containing 95 % oil (sunflower, soy, olive) and 5 % beeswax as a structuring agent, melted at 90 °C. Polarized light microscopy (PLM) images were acquired, and fatty acid composition, peroxide index and free fatty acid content were determined using official methods. A total of 240 oleogel and 92 oil spectra were obtained for each instrument. After spectra pretreatment, Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was performed, and two classification methods were investigated. The Data Driven - Soft Independent Modelling of Class Analogy (DD-SIMCA) and Partial Least Squares Discriminant Analysis (PLS-DA) models demonstrated 95 % to 100 % of accuracy for the external test set. In conclusion, the use of vibrational spectroscopy using handheld and portable instruments in tandem with chemometrics showed to be an efficient alternative for classifying oils and oleogels and could be extended to other food samples. Although the classification of vegetable oils by NIR is widely used and known, this work proposes the classification of different types of oil in oleogel matrices, which has not yet been explored in the literature.

Evaluation of bigel systems as potential substitutes to partially replace pork backfat in semi-dry sausages

Bigels prepared with olive oil oleogels admixed with κ-carrageenan or κ-carrageenan and gelatin hydrogels (BG1 and BG2, respectively) were characterized with respect to microstructure and textural properties and were used as pork backfat alternatives in semi-dry sausages. Stable oleogel-in-hydrogel type bigels were formed, with BG2 having higher hardness values. Control sausages (CF) were formulated with 20% pork backfat and sausage treatments B1F and B2F had 50% of the pork backfat substituted by BG1 and BG2 bigels, respectively. Moisture, water activity, texture, microbial counts, sensorial and nutritional attributes of the resulting sausages were assessed during fermentation and after pasteurization and storage. Substituted sausages had increased weight loss, moisture, and water activity. Color evaluation revealed that the treatments with bigels exhibited the same trend in color formation and no differences were recorded in L* and a* values of the sausages. Total viable counts and lactic acid bacteria populations were not affected by the addition of bigel systems. Regarding the texture parameters, B2F semi-dry sausages exhibited similar values of hardness and cohesiveness to CF. Sausages formulated with bigels exhibited a reduction in energy (20%), fat (27%), saturated fatty acids (30%) and cholesterol (∼6%) content. B2F sausages had similar liking scores with CF, and they did not show any undesirable sensory attributes. The results demonstrate that bigels are a promising fat alternative to manufacture semi-dry meat products with lower fat content and a better nutritional profile.

Enzymatic glycerolysis for the conversion of plant oils into animal fat mimetics

Substituting animal-based fats with plant-based fats of similar stability and functionality has always posed a significant challenge for the food industry. Enzymatic glycerolysis products are systems formed by converting native triacylglycerols in liquid oils into monoacylglycerols and diacylglycerols, mainly studied in the last few years for their unique structural ability. This study aims to modify and scale up the glycerolysis process of different plant oils, e.g., shea olein, palm olein, tigernut, peanut, cottonseed, and rice bran oils, with the goal of producing animal fat mimetics. The reactions were conducted at 65 °C, with a plant oil:glycerol molar ratio of 1:1, and without the addition of water, using a lab-scale reactor to convert up to 2 kg of oil into solid fat. Product characteristics were comparable at both laboratory and pilot plant scales, supporting the commercial viability of the process. Oil systems containing higher levels of both saturated and monounsaturated fatty acids, such as shea olein and palm olein, displayed higher solid fat content at elevated temperatures and broader melting profiles with significantly higher melting points. Comparison of the thermal softening behavior and mechanical properties of these systems with those of pork, beef, and lamb fat showed their high potential to replace adipose fat in the new generation of plant-based meat analogs.

Oleogelation based on plant waxes: characterization and food applications

Fats contribute majorly to food flavour, mouthfeel, palatability, texture, and aroma. Though solid fats are used for food formulation due to the processing benefits over oils, their negative health effects should not be overlooked. Oleogelation is thus used to transform liquid oil into a gel which function like fats and provide the nutritional benefits of oils. Additionally, only food-grade gelators convert the oils into solid-like, self-standing, three-dimensional gel networks. Rice bran wax, candelilla wax, carnauba wax, and sunflower wax are mainly used plant waxes for formulating oleogels as a result of their low cost, availability, and excellent gelling ability. A comprehensive information about the wax based oleogels, their characteristics and applications is needed. The present review discusses the effect of different plant-based waxes on the properties of the oleogel formed. The article provides information on how the physical and chemical properties of waxes impact the oleogel properties such as oil binding capacity, critical concentration, rheological, thermal, textural, morphological, and oxidative stability. Moreover, the current and potential applications of oleogels in the food sector have also been covered this article.

A novel strategy for simultaneous reduction of salt and animal fat in burger using a taste contrast system based on double emulsion

The work investigated a taste contrast strategy to reduce the salt content in burgers by a novel design of water in gelled oil in water double emulsion (DE) as an animal fat replacer. Oleogelation reduced the particle size and improved emulsion viscosity, resulting in more emulsion stability than conventional DE. Moreover, oil gelation enhanced the encapsulation efficiency of salt. The partial substitution of the optimized DE incorporating salt within the W1 and cinnamaldehyde within the oil phase with animal fat in the burger successfully reduced salt content by up to 25% while maintaining the desired level of saltiness. The presence of cinnamaldehyde also increased oxidative stability and decreased color changes during storage. The replacement of DE and oleogel in burgers diminished cooking loss, while negatively affected the textural properties. Therefore, further optimization of this strategy could lead to healthier food formulations with reduced fat and salt content.

Food gels: principles, interaction mechanisms and its microstructure

Food hydrogels are important materials having great scientific interest due to biocompatibility, safety and environment-friendly characteristics. In the food industry, hydrogels are widely used due to their three-dimensional crosslinked networks. Furthermore, they have attracted great attention due to their wide range of applications in the food industry, such as fat replacers, encapsulating agents, target delivery vehicles, and many more. In addition to basic and recent knowledge on food hydrogels, this review exclusively focuses on sensorial perceptions, nutritional significance, body interactions, network structures, mechanical properties, and potential hydrogel applications in food and food-based matrices. Additionally, this review highlights the structural design of hydrogels, which provide the forward-looking idea for future applications of food hydrogels (e.g., 3D or 4D printing).

Reformulation of Bologna Sausage by Total Pork Backfat Replacement with an Emulsion Gel Based on Olive, Walnut, and Chia Oils, and Stabilized with Chitosan

Bologna sausage, also called "la grassa", is a very popular meat product despite its high fat content and lipidic profile raising serious negative health concerns. An emulsion gel containing olive, walnut, and chia oils, stabilized with soy protein isolate, transglutaminase, and chitosan, was used as total pork backfat replacer in Bologna sausage. The nutritional, textural, and technological properties were assessed and sensory analyses were conducted. Color, pH, and lipid oxidation were monitored during 18 days of cold storage (4 °C). A normal fat Bologna sausage was used as a control reference. A decrease in the n-6/n-3 ratio from 16.85 to 1.86 (by 9 times) was achieved in the reformulated product as compared with the control, while the PUFA/SFA ratio increased from 0.57 to 1.61. Color measurements indicated that the lightness and yellowness increased while redness slightly decreased in the reformulated product. The total substitution of pork backfat in Bologna sausage by the emulsion gel developed in the present study was realized without significantly affecting the technological properties, the oxidative stability and the overall acceptance by the consumers.

Waxy Oleogels for Partial Substitution of Solid Fat in Margarines

One of the research directions of oleogels is to study the possibility of their practical application in the food industry as an alternative to solid fats. In this work, the possibility of replacing solid fat in margarine (fat content 82.5%) with oleogels was evaluated. The oleogel content varied from 10 to 50% of the fat phase. The concentration of gelator for which beeswax or wax components (9:1 combination of beeswax and hydrocarbons) were used represented 3% in oleogels. The fatty acid composition of the fat components used, their textural characteristics, and their color were studied. The following physicochemical and rheological properties of margarines were determined: color values, textural and thermal characteristics, and sensory properties. The data obtained were processed using principal component analysis (PCA). Oleogels were characterized by lower textural properties compared to commercial fat (CF), but a lower content of saturated fatty acids. When using oleogels, the color characteristics of the margarines changed insignificantly. A decrease in textural and organoleptic properties was shown when using more than 30% oleogel in the composition of margarines. It was found that an increase in the proportion of oleogel leads to a decrease in the melting enthalpy of margarines. The margarines, depending on the ratio of oleogel in the fat phase, were characterized by a content of saturated fatty acids reduced by 7-35% and increased by a 18-92% level of polyunsaturated fatty acids. Thus, the application of oleogels in margarine technology makes it possible to adjust the fatty acid composition while improving the physicochemical properties.

Novel Approaches to Improve Meat Products' Healthy Characteristics: A Review on Lipids, Salts, and Nitrites

Meat products are a staple of many diets around the world, but they have been subject to criticism due to their potential negative impact on human health. In recent years, there has been a growing interest in developing novel approaches to improve the healthy characteristics of meat products, with a particular focus on reducing the levels of harmful salts, lipids, and nitrites. This review aims to provide an overview of the latest research on the various methods being developed to address these issues, including the use of alternative salts, lipid-reducing techniques, and natural nitrite alternatives. By exploring these innovative approaches, we can gain a better understanding of the potential for improving the nutritional value of meat products, while also meeting the demands of consumers who are increasingly concerned about their health and well-being.

Plant-based meat analogs and fat substitutes, structuring technology and protein digestion: A review

There is currently an increasing trend in the consumption of meat analogs and fat substitutes due to the health hazards by excessive consumption of meat. Simulating the texture and mouthfeel of meat through structured plant-derived polymers has become a popular processing method. In this review, the mechanical structuring technology of plant polymers for completely replacing real meat is mainly introduced in this review, which mainly focuses on the parameters and principles of mechanical equipment for the production of vegan meat. The difference in composition between plant meat and real meat is mainly reflected in the protein, and particular attention should be paid to the digestive characteristics of plant meat protein in the gastrointestinal tract. Therefore, the differences in the protein digestibility properties of meat analogs and real meat is discussed in this review, focusing primarily on protein digestibility and peptide/amino acid composition of mechanically structured vegan meats. In terms of fat substitutes for meat products, the types of plant polymer colloidal systems used for meat fat substitutes is comprehensively introduced, including emulsion, hydrogel and oleogel.

A review of oleogels applications in dairy foods

The characteristics of dairy products, such as texture, color, flavor, and nutritional profile, are significantly influenced by the presence of milk fat. However, saturated fatty acids account for 65% of total milk fat. With increased health awareness and regulatory recommendations, consumer preferences have evolved toward low/no saturated fat food products. Reducing the saturated fat content of dairy products to meet market demands is an urgent yet challenging task, as it may compromise product quality and increase production costs. In this regard, oleogels have emerged as a viable milk fat replacement in dairy foods. This review focuses on recent advances in oleogel systems and explores their potential for incorporation into dairy products as a milk fat substitute. Overall, it can be concluded that oleogel can be a potential alternative to replace milk fat fully or partially in the product matrix to improve nutritional profile by mimicking similar rheological and textural product characteristics as milk fat. Furthermore, the impact of consuming oleogel-based dairy foods on digestibility and gut health is also discussed. A thorough comprehension of the application of oleogels in dairy products will provide an opportunity for the dairy sector to develop applications that will appeal to the changing consumer needs.

Food-Grade Oleogels: Trends in Analysis, Characterization, and Applicability

Currently, a large number of scientific articles can be found in the research literature in the field focusing on the use of oleogels for food formulation to improve their nutritional properties. The present review focuses on the most representative food-grade oleogels, highlighting current trends in terms of the most suitable methods of analysis and characterization, as well as trends in their application as substitutes for saturated and trans fats in foods. For this purpose, the physicochemical properties, structure, and composition of some oleogelators are primarily discussed, along with the adequacy of oleogel incorporation for use in edible products. Analysis and characterization of oleogels by different methods are important in the formulation of innovative foods, and therefore, this review discusses the most recent published results regarding their microstructure, rheological and textural properties, and oxidative stability. Last but not least, issues related to the sensory properties of oleogel-based foods are discussed, highlighting also the consumer acceptability of some of them.

Physicochemical, microbiological, and sensory characteristics of "Sui Wu'u" traditional pork products from Bajawa, West Flores, Indonesia

Background and Aim

Sui Wu'u is a traditional meat preservation product from Bajawa, a region in East Nusa Tenggara. It is made by mixing pork with salt and corn flour, which is then stored in a bamboo container (tuku) for months. After 6 months of storage, this study examined the physicochemical, microbiological, and sensory properties of Sui Wu'u.

Materials and Methods

Sui Wu'u products were prepared using the traditional recipe from the Bajawa community. Fresh pork (pork belly and backfat), corn flour, and salt were purchased from local/traditional markets at proportions of 65%, 30%, and 5%, respectively. The physicochemical, amino acid, fatty acid profile, microbiological, and sensory properties of Sui Wu'u were evaluated after being stored for 6 months in a bamboo container (tuku).

Results

The results indicated that these Sui Wu'u were mainly characterized by high-fat levels, followed by protein. The pH value, salt content, moisture content, and water activity were 4.72%, 1.72%, 6.11%, and 0.62%, respectively. Minerals (K, P, Se, and Zn) and vitamin B6, as well as amino acids, such as leucine, phenylalanine, lysine (essential amino acids), glycine, proline, glutamic acid, and alanine (non-essential amino acids), are present in Sui Wu'u. The fatty acid profile was dominated by monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) (21.69%), saturated fatty acids (SFA) (17.78%), and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) (5.36%). Monounsaturated fatty acids, oleic acid (C18:1n9) was the most abundant fatty acid in Sui Wu'u, followed by palmitic acid SFA (C16:0); MUFA stearic acid (C18:0); and PUFA linoleic (C18:2n-6). The microbiological characteristics of Sui Wu'u showed no detectable microorganisms (<10 CFU/g) for Salmonella, total E. coli and total Staphylococcus, and average values of 4.4 × 105 CFU/g for total microbes, which were still below the maximum limit of microbial contamination according to the regulations of the Food and Drug Supervisory Agency of the Republic of Indonesia. The sensory assessment indicated that panelists highly preferred (rated as very like) Sui Wu'u for all sensory attributes.

Conclusion

The physicochemical, microbiological, and sensory characteristics of Sui Wu'u after 6 months of storage indicated that it still provides essential nutrients for the body and is quite safe for consumption. The stability of Sui Wu'u's shelf life can be attributed to the appropriate combination of pork, salt, corn flour, bamboo packaging (tuku), and storage temperature. The high-fat content in Sui Wu'u can be reduced by increasing the proportion of lean meat. Ensuring strict sanitation during the manufacturing process, using high-quality pork, salt, corn flour, and proper packaging with bamboo can further improve the safety of Sui Wu'u for consumption.

Healthier Oils: A New Scope in the Development of Functional Meat and Dairy Products: A Review

In the present day, it has been widely established that a high intake of animal fat that contains a high content of saturated fatty acids may cause several life-threatening diseases, including obesity, diabetes-type 2, cardiovascular diseases, as well as several types of cancer. In this context, a great number of health organizations and government agencies have launched campaigns to reduce the saturated fat content in foods, which has prompted the food industry, which is no stranger to this problem, to start working to develop foods with a lower fat content or with a different fatty acid profile. Nevertheless, this is not an easy task due to the fact that saturated fat plays a very important role in food processing and in the sensorial perception of foods. Actually, the best way to replace saturated fat is with the use of structured vegetable or marine oils. The main strategies for structuring oils include pre-emulsification, microencapsulation, the development of gelled emulsions, and the development of oleogels. This review will examine the current literature on the different (i) healthier oils and (ii) strategies that will be potentially used by the food industry to reduce or replace the fat content in several food products.

Bigels as Fat Replacers in Fermented Sausages: Physicochemical, Microbiological, Sensory, and Nutritional Characteristics

Olive oil bigels structured with monoglycerides, gelatin, and κ-carrageenan were designed for the partial substitution of pork backfat in fermented sausages. Two different bigels were used: bigel B60 consisted of 60% aqueous and 40% lipid phase; and bigel B80 was formulated with 80% aqueous and 20% lipid phase. Three different pork sausage treatments were manufactured: control with 18% pork backfat; treatment SB60 with 9% pork backfat and 9% bigel B60; and treatment SB80 with 9% pork backfat and 9% bigel B80. Microbiological and physicochemical analyses were carried out for all three treatments on 0, 1, 3, 6, and 16 days after sausage preparation. Bigel substitution did not affect water activity or the populations of lactic acid bacteria, total viable counts, Micrococcaceae, and Staphylococcacea during the fermentation and ripening period. Treatments SB60 and SB80 presented higher weight loss during fermentation and higher TBARS values only on day 16 of storage. Consumer sensory evaluation did not identify significant differences among the sausage treatments in color, texture, juiciness, flavor, taste, and overall acceptability. The results show that bigels can be utilized for the formulation of healthier meat products with acceptable microbiological, physicochemical, and organoleptic characteristics.

Substitution of Pork Fat by Emulsified Seed Oils in Fresh Deer Sausage ('Chorizo') and Its Impact on the Physical, Nutritional, and Sensory Properties

Meat products are consumed worldwide, but their high content of saturated fatty acids requires a reformulation of that type of food. In this regard, the objective of this study is to reformulate 'chorizos' by replacing the pork fat with emulsified seed oils from seeds (50%, 75%, and 100%). Commercial seeds (chia and poppy) and other seeds considered wastes from the agri-food industry (melon and pumpkin) were evaluated. Physical parameters, nutritional composition, fatty acid profile, and consumer evaluation were analyzed. The reformulated chorizos presented a softer texture but a better fatty acid profile due to their decrease in saturated fatty acids and their increase in linoleic and linolenic fatty acids. Regarding consumer evaluation, all the batches were positively evaluated in all the parameters studied.

Optimization of Olive Oil Oleogel-Based Emulsion Composition: Effect of Oleogel Composition on Emulsion Characteristics

In this study, the effects of oil, water, glycerol monostearate, carrageenan and alginate concentrations, which have a significant effect on quality parameters in olive oil oleogel-based emulsion (OOE), were investigated and their optimum amounts were determined by mixture design for oleogel production with desired properties. OOE was produced using olive oil, water, glycerol monostearate (GMS), carrageenan and alginate at various concentrations in the range of 0-70%, 30-60%, 0-2%, 0-2% and 0-2%, respectively. The optimum quality parameters of OOE were evaluated in terms of optimum firmness value (5.5-7 N), minimum oil loss and peroxide value. The optimum composition was determined 53.5% olive oil, 43.5% water, 1.1% carrageenan, 0.92% alginate and 0.98% glycerol monostearate (w/w). Produced OOE under determined optimum conditions had 5.81 N firmness, 1.82 meq/O₂ peroxide value and 21.02% oil loss value. The margin of error between the experimentally obtained data and the estimated data in the study is average 2%. The results showed that the formulation used in OOE production have significant effects on the created OOE structure and quality parameters. In addition, different formulations to be created with the results of the present study will contribute to increasing the applicability of OOE in different foods.

Oleogels-Innovative Technological Solution for the Nutritional Improvement of Meat Products

Food products contain important quantities of fats, which include saturated and/or unsaturated fatty acids. Because of a proven relationship between saturated fat consumption and the appearance of several diseases, an actual trend is to eliminate them from foodstuffs by finding solutions for integrating other healthier fats with high stability and solid-like structure. Polyunsaturated vegetable oils are healthier for the human diet, but their liquid consistency can lead to a weak texture or oil drain if directly introduced into foods during technological processes. Lately, the use of oleogels that are obtained through the solidification of liquid oils by using edible oleogelators, showed encouraging results as fat replacers in several types of foods. In particular, for meat products, studies regarding successful oleogel integration in burgers, meat batters, pâtés, frankfurters, fermented and bologna sausages have been noted, in order to improve their nutritional profile and make them healthier by substituting for animal fats. The present review aims to summarize the newest trends regarding the use of oleogels in meat products. However, further research on the compatibility between different oil-oleogelator formulations and meat product components is needed, as it is extremely important to obtain appropriate compositions with adequate behavior under the processing conditions.

New formulation of fermented sausages towards healthier and quality rectification by adding <em>Ferulago angulata</em> essential oil

The demand is improved for ready-to-eat meals by lifestyle changes and fermented sausages are popular meat products because of their flavor. Natural compositions are considered as substitutes of synthetic preservatives in products, which have been extensively employed. The aim of present research is to investigate the impact of Ferulago Angulata Essential Oil (FAEO) as an antimicrobial and antioxidant factor for preserving of dry fermented sausages throughout storage. Initially, FAEO was extracted using microwave assisted hydrodistillation and its components were identified by gas chromatography-mass spectroscopy. Fermented sausages were treated by starter culture (Biobak K) and FAEO at various concentrations (0, 400, 800 and 1000 ppm). Afterwards, tests such as pH, moisture, thiobarbituric acid, texture, microbial growth, electron microscope images, and sensory evaluation were conducted during storage (28 d). The high levels of bioactive compositions such as limonene (30.71%) and α-pinene (19.02%) were indicated in FAEO. The results illustrated that pH and moisture of all fermented sausages were within the standard range during storage. At different concentrations, FAEO significantly decreased thiobarbituric acid of treated samples compared to control (p<0.05). Furthermore, FAEO was able to improve cohesiveness and elasticity of fermented sausages, which were also visible in electron microscope images. Antimicrobial feature of FAEO was distinguished by evaluating microbial attributes (total viable count, lactic acid bacteria and yeast) in fermented sausages. Ultimately, FAEO at 800 ppm concentration was detected as a promising and appropriate natural preservative during storage in fermented sausages.

Main animal fat replacers for the manufacture of healthy processed meat products

The technological, sensory, and nutritional characteristics of meat products are directly related to their animal fat content. Adding animal fat to meat products significantly influences their sensory properties, such as color, taste, and aroma. In addition, the physicochemical properties of fat decisively contribute to the texture of meat products, playing a fundamental role in improving the properties of viscosity, creaminess, chewiness, cohesiveness, and hardness. However, meat products' high animal fat content makes them detrimental to a healthy diet. Therefore, reducing the fat content of meat products is an urgent need, but it is a challenge for researchers and the meat industry. The fat reduction in meat products without compromising the product's quality and with minor impacts on the production costs is not a simple task. Thus, strategies to reduce the fat content of meat products should be studied with caution. During the last decades, several fat replacers were tested, but among all of them, the use of flours and fibers, hydrocolloids, mushrooms, and some animal proteins (such as whey and collagen) presented promising results. Additionally, multiple strategies to gel oils of vegetable origin are also a current topic of study, and these have certain advantages such as their appearance (attempts to imitate animal fat), while also improving the nutritional profile of the lipid fraction of the products meat. However, each of these fat substitutes has both advantages and limitations in their use, which will be discussed in subsequent sections. Therefore, due to the growing interest in this issue, this review focuses on the main substitutes for animal fat used in the production of meat products, offering detailed and updated information on the latest discoveries and advances in this area.

Wax based oleogels and their application in sponge cakes

The use of high amounts of saturated fatty acids mainly obtained from tropical fats and oils gains increasing rejection from consumers. Use of liquid plant based oils, however, does not deliver necessary functionalities. In this contribution, sunflower-(SFW), bees-wax (BW), ricebran wax (RBW) and a BW-wax mixture (BW : SFWh) were investigated as a potential alternative fat phase in low-density bakery products. Since the food product matrix is composed of complex ingredients, key-functionalities (foam-stabilization, viscoelastic properties, and oil-binding) were first investigated for pure oleogels as oleofoams. It could be demonstrated that all waxes investigated were able to form oleofoams. The location of wax crystal aggregates, at the oil-air interface or in the bulk, was shown to be a significant factor regarding oil-binding and viscoelastic properties. However, it was not possible to transfer all findings made for the oleofoams to the ones made for the oleogel based sponge cakes. There, all oleogels showed improvement compared to the canola oil variant regarding oil-leaping and visual appearance (volume). Sensory evaluation attested satisfactory results for all wax-based oleogel applications. This contribution aims to deliver novel findings for wax-based oleogels as oleofoams as well as an alternative fat phase in low-density bakery products. The gathered results aim to enable a target-oriented characterization of oleogel applications and hence facilitate future use to deliver beneficial products to the market.

Effects of the Replacement of Pork Backfat with High Oleic Sunflower Oil on the Quality of the “Chorizo Zamorano” Dry Fermented Sausage

The “Chorizo Zamorano” dry fermented sausage is a traditional Spanish product which is highly appreciated by consumers. This paper studies the reformulation of this product in order to improve its lipid composition and its fatty acid profile and to reduce its fat content. To achieve this, the fat used in the production of the product was partially replaced with high oleic sunflower oil in proportions of 12.5%, 20%, and 50% of the total fat content. Proximate analysis, fatty acid profiles, lipid oxidation, and sensory analysis were studied. The replacement of fat with oil showed a significant effect on the evolution of the parameters analyzed during ripening in all cases. The batches with sunflower oil presented higher levels of monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) and lower levels of saturated fatty acids (SFA) and a similar amount of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) to the control products. The replacement of up to 20% of oil showed no significant differences for most of the physicochemical and sensory parameters analyzed at the end of the ripening.

Strategies to improve meat-like properties of meat analogs meeting consumers' expectations

Due to environmental and ethical concerns, meat analogs represent an emerging trend to replace traditional animal meat. However, meat analogs lacking specific sensory properties (flavor, texture, color) would directly affect consumers' acceptance and purchasing behavior. In this review, we discussed the typical sensory characteristics of animal meat products from texture, flavor, color aspects, and sensory perception during oral processing. The related strategies were detailed to improve meat-like sensory properties for meat analogs. However, the upscaling productions of meat analogs still face many challenges (e.g.: sensory stability of plant-based meat, 3D scaffolds in cultured meat, etc.). Producing safe, low cost and sustainable meat analogs would be a hot topic in food science in the next decades. To realize these promising outcomes, reliable robust devices with automatic processing should also be considered. This review aims at providing the latest progress to improve the sensory properties of meat analogs and meet consumers' requirements.

Oleogels prepared with low molecular weight gelators: Texture, rheology and sensory properties, a review

There is a growing need for healthier foods with no trans and reduced saturated fat. However, solid fats play critical roles in texture and sensory attributes of food products, making it challenging to eliminate them in foods. Recently, the concept of oleogelation as a novel oil structuring technique has received numerous attentions owing to their great potential to mimic the properties of solid fats. Understanding textural, rheological and sensory properties of oleogels helps predict the techno-functionalities of oleogels to replace solid fats in food products. This research critically reviews the textural and rheological properties of oleogels prepared by low molecular weight oleogelators (LMWGs) and functional characteristics of foods formulated by these oleogels. The mechanical properties of LMWG-containing oleogels are comprehensively discussed against conventional solid fats. The interactions between the oleogel and its surrounding food matrix are explained, and the sensory attributes of oleogel containing reformulated products are highlighted. Scientific insights into the texture and rheological properties of oleogels manufactured with a wide range of low molecular gelators and their related products are provided in order to boost their implication for creating healthier foods with high consumer acceptability. Future research opportunities on low molecular weight gelators are also discussed.

The Influence of Edible Oils' Composition on the Properties of Beeswax-Based Oleogels

This study aimed to find relationships between the properties of beeswax-based oleogels and the type of oil used. The influence of linseed, sunflower, olive, and fish oils was studied. For these oils, the fatty acid composition, the content of total polar components, and the iodine value were characterized. Textural and thermodynamic properties were determined for oleogels, the oil-binding capacity was estimated, and the morphology of crystals was studied. The concentration of beeswax in all oleogels was 6.0% w/w. It was shown that the type of oil has a significant influence on all characteristics of the oleogels. The use of different oils at the same technological treatment leads to the formation of crystals of diverse morphology-from platelets to spherulites. At the same time, it was revealed that some characteristics of oils have a varying contribution to the properties of oleogels. The content of total polar materials in oils is associated with a decrease in strength parameters (yield value and elastic modulus) and the oil-binding capacity of oleogels. In its turn, the iodine value of oils has a close positive correlation with the melting and crystallization temperatures of oleogels. The results obtained in this article indicate that the properties of beeswax-based oleogels can be directed by changing the oil composition.

Recent advances in the development of healthier meat products

Meat products are an excellent source of high biological value proteins, in addition to the high content of minerals, vitamins, and bioactive compounds. However, meat products contain compounds that can cause a variety of adverse health effects and pose a serious health threat to humans. In this sense, this chapter will address recent strategies to assist in the development of healthier meat products. The main advances about the reduction of sodium and animal fat in meat products will be presented. In addition, strategies to make the lipid profile of meat products more nutritionally advantageous for human health will also be discussed. Finally, the reduction of substances of safety concern in meat products will be addressed, including phosphates, nitrites, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, heterocyclic aromatic amines, as well as products from lipid and protein oxidation.

The effect of β-glucan and inulin on the reduction of aflatoxin B1 level and assessment of textural and sensory properties in chicken sausages

In recent years, people have a tendency to consume ready-made foods such as sausages. Therefore, the use of quality raw materials in these products is very important because these compounds may be contaminated with aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁). Various biological and natural methods have been introduced to reduce aflatoxins in food products. The aim of the present study was to reduce AFB₁ levels. So, β-glucan (βG) and Inulin (IN) were used in different ratios (1: 2%, 2: 1%, 1.5: 1.5%, 0: 3, 3: 0%) in chicken sausages. AFB₁ levels were measured by High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) in a period of 1–45 days. Then, texture and sensory properties were examined. After 45 days, AFB₁ levels were decreased in all samples, and the highest level of reduction (73.7%) was observed in samples with 5 μg/kg AFB₁ and 3% βG. Texture analysis showed that all the evaluated features complied with the standard. The hardness of chicken sausage with addition of IN (3%) (3.162N) was close to that of the control (2.99N). None of the products were significantly different from the control sample in terms of sensory properties. Therefore, βG and IN are effective in reducing AFB1, and the produced sausages can be acceptable for marketing and be offered for consumption.

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Aflatoxin B₁ levels were assessed by adding β-glucan and inulin.

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Texture and sensory characteristics were investigated.

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Aflatoxin B₁ levels were reduced in all samples.

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The impact of β-glucan on the reduction of aflatoxin B₁ was more than that of inulin.

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The textural and sensory characteristics of the sausage samples were acceptable.

Future trends of processed meat products concerning perceived healthiness: A review

The 21st-century consumer is highly demanding when it comes to the health benefits of food and food products. In the pursuit of attracting these consumers and easing the rise in demand for high-quality meat products, the processed meat sector is intensely focused on developing reformulated, low-fat, healthy meat products. Meat and meat products are considered the primary sources of saturated fatty acids in the human diet. Therefore, these reformulation strategies aim to improve the fatty acid profile and reduce total fat and cholesterol, which can be achieved by replacing animal fat with plant-based oils; it could be performed as direct inclusion of these oils or pre-emulsified oils. However, emulsions offer a viable option for incorporating vegetable oils while avoiding the multiple issues of direct inclusion of these oils in meat products. Processed meat products are popular worldwide and showing a gradually increasing trend of consumption. Various types of plant-based oils have been studied as fat replacers in meat products. This review will focus on possible methods to reduce the saturated fatty acid content in meat products.

Tailoring the Structure of Lipids, Oleogels and Fat Replacers by Different Approaches for Solving the Trans-Fat Issue-A Review

The issue of the adverse effects of trans-fatty acids has become more transparent in recent years due to researched evidence of their link with coronary diseases, obesity or type 2 diabetes. Apart from conventional techniques for lipid structuring, novel nonconventional approaches for the same matter, such as enzymatic interesterification, genetic modification, oleogelation or using components from nonlipid origins such as fat replacers have been proposed, leading to a product with a healthier nutritional profile (low in saturated fats, zero trans fats and high in polyunsaturated fats). However, replacing conventional fat with a structured lipid or with a fat mimetic can alternate some of the technological operations or the food quality impeding consumers' acceptance. In this review, we summarize the research of the different existing methods (including conventional and nonconventional) for tailoring lipids in order to give a concise and critical overview in the field. Specifically, raw materials, methods for their production and the potential of food application, together with the properties of new product formulations, have been discussed. Future perspectives, such as the possibility of bioengineering approaches and the valorization of industrial side streams in the framework of Green Production and Circular Economy in the production of tailored lipids, have been highlighted. Additionally, a schematic diagram classifying conventional and nonconventional techniques is proposed based on the processing steps included in tailored lipid production as a convenient and straightforward tool for research and industry searching for healthy, sustainable and zero trans edible lipid system alternatives.

Rice bran oil emulgel as a pork back fat alternate for semi-dried fish sausage

The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of rice bran oil emulsion filled gels (EG) substitution for pork back fat on the characteristics of Chinese style semi-dried tilapia sausage (CFS). EG prepared using different gelling agents and processing conditions were used as pork back fat alternate in the CFS. From the results, physical, chemical and microstructural qualities of CFS were governed by the type of EG incorporated. Regarding the overall quality, CFS formulated with carrageenan-EG was classified as an optimal formula. CFS added with carrageenan-EG showed a superior oxidative stability, color preservation, and water holding capacity compared to the control during vacuum packaged storage at room temperature for 20 days. Thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) and microbial quality of both formulae remained in the acceptable level (TBARS < 1 mg/kg and total plate count < 4 log CFU/g) throughout the storage. Therefore, the carrageenan based EG substitution for pork back fat is a promising avenue for the production of the CFS where a high saturated animal fat was substituted by vegetable oil.

Monoglyceride oleogels as fat replacers in filling creams for sandwich cookies

BACKGROUND

Many food products need to be reformulated to reduce the intake of saturated and trans fats which are considered unhealthy. In particular, the reformulation of filling creams (FCs) is challenging as these fats cannot be directly replaced with liquid oil without affecting the final product properties. This research studied the formulation and characterization of FCs for sandwich cookies using monoglyceride oleogel as fat material.

RESULTS

FC formulated with 260 g kg^-1 oleogel showed viscoelastic moduli values that did not differ significantly from those measured in a filling cream of commercial sandwich cookies (FC-CSCs) used as reference. The oil binding capacity of the FCs decreased with the increase of oleogel content. The increase of the oleogel amount in the formulation produced a decrease in hardness but an increase in adhesiveness and cohesiveness. Hardness, adhesiveness, and cohesiveness ranged from 0.66 to 3.48 N, 0.44 to 0.86 N s, and 0.07 to 0.29, respectively. When FCs were used for assembling cookies into sandwiches, an oil loss of about 9 g kg^-1 FC after 21 days of storage was found in FCs containing 220 and 260 g kg^-1 oleogel. The nutritional improvement due to the use of oleogel in FCs led to a reduction in saturated fatty acids between 64.5% and 35.2% and from 1.0 to 0.0% trans fatty acids in comparison with FC-CSC.

CONCLUSION

Full fat replacement with monoglyceride oleogel in FC formulations allows the obtention of products with good quality and some similar characteristics to those obtained for FC-CSC, with the added benefit of a healthier nutritional profile. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry.

Functionality of Ingredients and Additives in Plant-Based Meat Analogues

Meat analogue research and development focuses on the production of sustainable products that recreate conventional meat in its physical sensations (texture, appearance, taste, etc.) and nutritional aspects. Minced products, like burger patties and nuggets, muscle-type products, like chicken or steak-like cuts, and emulsion products, like Frankfurter and Mortadella type sausages, are the major categories of meat analogues. In this review, we discuss key ingredients for the production of these novel products, with special focus on protein sources, and underline the importance of ingredient functionality. Our observation is that structuring processes are optimized based on ingredients that were not originally designed for meat analogues applications. Therefore, mixing and blending different plant materials to obtain superior functionality is for now the common practice. We observed though that an alternative approach towards the use of ingredients such as flours, is gaining more interest. The emphasis, in this case, is on functionality towards use in meat analogues, rather than classical functionality such as purity and solubility. Another trend is the exploration of novel protein sources such as seaweed, algae and proteins produced via fermentation (cellular agriculture).

Physico-chemical and sensory characterization of sliced Iberian chorizo from raw material of three commercial categories and stability during refrigerated storage packaged under vacuum and modified atmospheres

Physico-chemical and sensory analysis of Iberian chorizo manufactured from three commercial categories raw material compiled in the current Spanish Iberian Quality standard (Black, Red; 100% Iberian and 50% Iberian × Duroc pigs, respectively, under Montanera, and White; 50% Iberian × Duroc pigs commercially fed) and packed under vacuum and modified atmosphere (MAP) were carried out, in order to address the influence of the genotype and animal production system and packaging on quality parameters, as well as the stability of these throughout long-term storage. Montanera categories showed higher values of γ-tocopherol, mono- and poly-unsaturated fatty acids, greater scores of flavour and taste and higher lipid oxidation during the whole storage. MAP preserved better colour, especially redness and lipid oxidative status. Iberian chorizo could attain a differentiated quality because of physico-chemical and sensorial characteristics derived from the Montanera that would be adequate preserved in both vacuum and MAP throughout long-term storage.

Recent Discoveries in the Field of Lipid Bio-Based Ingredients for Meat Processing

Current culture and pace of lifestyle, together with consumer demand for ready-to-eat foods, has influenced the food industry, particularly the meat sector. However, due to the important role that diet plays in human health, consumers demand safe and healthy food products. As a consequence, even foods that meet expectations for convenience and organoleptic properties must also meet expectations from a nutritional standpoint. One of the main nutritionally negative aspects of meat products is the content and composition of fat. In this sense, the meat industry has spent decades researching the best strategies for the reformulation of traditional products, without having a negative impact in technological processes or in the sensory acceptance of the final product. However, the enormous variety of meat products as well as industrial and culinary processes means that a single strategy cannot be established, despite the large volume of work carried out in this regard. Therefore, taking all the components of this complex situation into account and utilizing the large amount of scientific information that is available, this review aims to comprehensively analyze recent advances in the use of lipid bio-based materials to reformulate meat products, as well as their nutritional, technological, and sensorial implications.

Healthy beef burgers: Effect of animal fat replacement by algal and wheat germ oil emulsions

The present study aimed to reformulate beef burgers to make them healthier through total replacement of pork backfat by algal (Al) and/or wheat germ (WG) oils emulsions. The addition of oils emulsions increased the protein and decreased the proportions of lipids in the burgers between 26% and 38%. Colour and technological parameters were not affected by the addition of oils, but increased all TPA parameters. α-tocopherol (Vitamin E) increased in reformulated samples. The wheat germ oil reduced the SFA concentration. The use of algal and/or wheat germ oils emulsions increase PUFA concentration. Beef burgers containing algal oil can be claimed as "high omega-3 content". Both oils improved the n-6/n-3 and PUFA/SFA nutritional ratios. Sensory differences were observed in the flavour and overall quality parameters. The formulations containing algal oil emulsion were similar to the Control. As a general conclusion, the use of algal oil emulsion as pork backfat substitute improve nutritional characteristics of burger without affecting technological or sensory properties.