The involvement of a P38-like MAP kinase in ABA-induced and H2O2-mediated stomatal closure in Vicia faba L

Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase Is Involved in Salt Stress Response in Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) Seedlings

Salt stress impairs plant growth and development, thereby causing low yield and inferior quality of crops. In this study, tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L. ‘Micro-Tom’) seedlings treated with different concentrations of sodium chloride (NaCl) were investigated in terms of decreased plant height, stem diameter, dry weight, fresh weight, leaves relative water content and root activity. To reveal the response mechanism of tomato seedlings to salt stress, the transcriptome of tomato leaves was conducted. A total of 6589 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were identified and classified into different metabolic pathways, especially photosynthesis, carbon metabolism, biosynthesis of amino acids and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathway. Of these, approximately 42 DEGs were enriched in the MAPK signaling pathway, most of which mainly included plant hormone, hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂), wounding and pathogen infection signaling pathways. To further explore the roles of MAPK under salt stress, MAPK phosphorylation inhibitor SB203580 (SB) was applied. We found that SB further decreased endogenous jasmonic acid, abscisic acid and ethylene levels under salt stress condition. Additionally, in comparison with NaCl treatment alone, SB + NaCl treatment reduced the content of O²⁻ and H₂O₂ and the activities of antioxidant enzyme and downregulated the expression levels of genes related to pathogen infection. Together, the results revealed that MAPK might be involved in the salinity response of tomato seedlings by regulating hormone balance, ROS metabolism, antioxidant capacity and plant immunity.

6-Benzyladenine increasing subsequent waterlogging-induced waterlogging tolerance of summer maize by increasing hormone signal transduction

Summer maize is frequently subjected to waterlogging damage because of increased and variable rainfall during the growing season. The application of 6-benzyladenine (6-BA) can effectively mitigate the waterlogging effects on plant growth and increase the grain yield of waterlogged summer maize. However, the mechanisms underlying this process and the involvement of 6-BA in relevant signal transduction pathways remain unclear. In this study, we explored the effects of 6-BA on waterlogged summer maize using a phosphoproteomic technique to better understand the mechanism by which summer maize growth improves following waterlogging. Application of 6-BA inhibited the waterlogging-induced increase in abscisic acid (ABA) content and increased the phosphorylation levels of proteins involved in ABA signaling; accordingly, stomatal responsiveness to exogenous ABA increased. In addition, the application of 6-BA had a long-term effect on signal transduction pathways and contributed to rapid responses to subsequent stresses. Plants primed with 6-BA accumulated more ethylene and jasmonic acid in response to subsequent waterlogging; accordingly, leaf SPAD, antioxidase activity, and root traits improved by 6-BA priming. These results suggest that the effects of 6-BA on hormone signal transduction pathways are anamnestic, which enables plants to show faster or stronger defense responses to stress.

Chemical Manipulation of Abscisic Acid Signaling: A New Approach to Abiotic and Biotic Stress Management in Agriculture

The phytohormone abscisic acid (ABA) is the best-known stress signaling molecule in plants. ABA protects sessile land plants from biotic and abiotic stresses. The conserved pyrabactin resistance/pyrabactin resistance-like/regulatory component of ABA receptors (PYR/PYL/RCAR) perceives ABA and triggers a cascade of signaling events. A thorough knowledge of the sequential steps of ABA signaling will be necessary for the development of chemicals that control plant stress responses. The core components of the ABA signaling pathway have been identified with adequate characterization. The information available concerning ABA biosynthesis, transport, perception, and metabolism has enabled detailed functional studies on how the protective ability of ABA in plants might be modified to increase plant resistance to stress. Some of the significant contributions to chemical manipulation include ABA biosynthesis inhibitors, and ABA receptor agonists and antagonists. Chemical manipulation of key control points in ABA signaling is important for abiotic and biotic stress management in agriculture. However, a comprehensive review of the current knowledge of chemical manipulation of ABA signaling is lacking. Here, a thorough analysis of recent reports on small-molecule modulation of ABA signaling is provided. The challenges and prospects in the chemical manipulation of ABA signaling for the development of ABA-based agrochemicals are also discussed.

Plant chemical genetics reveals colistin sulphate as a SA and NPR1-independent PR1 inducer functioning via a p38-like kinase pathway

In plants, low-dose of exogenous bacterial cyclic lipopeptides (CLPs) trigger transient membrane changes leading to activation of early and late defence responses. Here, a forward chemical genetics approach identifies colistin sulphate (CS) CLP as a novel plant defence inducer. CS uniquely triggers activation of the PATHOGENESIS-RELATED 1 (PR1) gene and resistance against Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato DC3000 (Pst DC3000) in Arabidopsis thaliana (Arabidopsis) independently of the PR1 classical inducer, salicylic acid (SA) and the key SA-signalling protein, NON-EXPRESSOR OF PR1 (NPR1). Low bioactive concentration of CS does not trigger activation of early defence markers such as reactive oxygen species (ROS) and mitogen activated protein kinase (MAPK). However, it strongly suppresses primary root length elongation. Structure activity relationship (SAR) assays and mode-of-action (MoA) studies show the acyl chain and activation of a ∼46 kDa p38-like kinase pathway to be crucial for CS' bioactivity. Selective pharmacological inhibition of the active p38-like kinase pathway by SB203580 reverses CS' effects on PR1 activation and root length suppression. Our results with CS as a chemical probe highlight the existence of a novel SA- and NPR1-independent branch of PR1 activation functioning via a membrane-sensitive p38-like kinase pathway.

The p38-like MAP kinase modulated H2O2 accumulation in wounding signaling pathways of sweet potato

In sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas cv Tainung 57), MAPK cascades are involved in the regulation of Ipomoelin (IPO) expression upon wounding. p38 MAPK plays an important role in plant's responses to various environmental stresses. However, the role of p38-like MAPK in wounding response is still unknown. In this study, the levels of phosphorylated-p38-like MAPK (pp38-like MAPK) in sweet potato were noticeably reduced after wounding. In addition, SB203580 (SB), a specific inhibitor blocking p38 MAPK phosphorylation, considerably decreased the accumulation of pp38-like MAPK. Expression of a wound-inducible gene IPO was elevated by SB. Moreover, it stimulated hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) production rather than cytosolic Ca²⁺ elevation in sweet potato leaves. However, NADPH oxidase (NOX) inhibitor diphenyleneiodonium could not inhibit IPO induction stimulated by SB. These results indicated a p38-like MAPK mechanism was involved in the regulation of IPO expression through NOX-independent H₂O₂ generation. In addition, the presence of the protein phosphatase inhibitor okadaic acid or the MEK1/ERK inhibitor PD98059 repressed the H₂O₂- or SB-induced IPO expression, demonstrating phosphatase(s) and MEK1/ERK functioning in the downstream of H₂O₂ and pp38-like MAPK in the signal transduction pathway stimulating IPO. Conclusively, wounding decreased the amount of pp38-like MAPK, stimulated H₂O₂ production, and then induced IPO expression.

Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase Cascades in Plant Hormone Signaling

Mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) modules play key roles in the transduction of environmental and developmental signals through phosphorylation of downstream signaling targets, including other kinases, enzymes, cytoskeletal proteins or transcription factors, in all eukaryotic cells. A typical MAPK cascade consists of at least three sequentially acting serine/threonine kinases, a MAP kinase kinase kinase (MAPKKK), a MAP kinase kinase (MAPKK) and finally, the MAP kinase (MAPK) itself, with each phosphorylating, and hence activating, the next kinase in the cascade. Recent advances in our understanding of hormone signaling pathways have led to the discovery of new regulatory systems. In particular, this research has revealed the emerging role of crosstalk between the protein components of various signaling pathways and the involvement of this crosstalk in multiple cellular processes. Here we provide an overview of current models and mechanisms of hormone signaling with a special emphasis on the role of MAPKs in cell signaling networks. One-sentence summary: In this review we highlight the mechanisms of crosstalk between MAPK cascades and plant hormone signaling pathways and summarize recent findings on MAPK regulation and function in various cellular processes.

Cross-reactivities of mammalian MAPKs antibodies in rotifer and copepod: Application in mechanistic studies in aquatic ecotoxicology

The mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) family is known to mediate various biological processes in response to diverse environmental pollutants. Although MAPKs are well characterized and studied in vertebrates, in invertebrates the cross-reactivities of MAPKs antibodies were not clearly known in response to environmental pollutants due to limited information of antibody epitopes with material resources for invertebrates. In this paper, we performed phylogenetic analysis of MAPKs genes in the marine rotifer Brachionus koreanus and the copepods Paracyclopina nana and Tigriopus japonicus. Also in rotifer and copepods, several studies of Western blot of MAPK signaling pathways were shown in response to environmental pollutants, including multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs), water-accommodated fractions (WAFs) of crude oil, and microplastics. This paper will provide a better understanding of the underlying mechanistic scenario in terms of cross-reactivities of mammalian antibodies in rotifer and copepod.

Role and interrelationship of MEK1-MPK6 cascade, hydrogen peroxide and nitric oxide in darkness-induced stomatal closure

Pharmacological data have suggested the involvement of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MPK) cascades in dark-induced stomatal closure, but which specific MPK cascade participates in the darkness guard cell signaling and its relationship with hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) and nitric oxide (NO) remain unclear. In this paper, we observed that darkness induced activation of MPK6 in leaves of wild-type Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) and mutants for nitrate reductase 1 (NIA1), but this effect was inhibited in mutants for MPK Kinase 1 (MEK1) and ATRBOHD/F. Mutants for MEK1, MPK6 and NIA1 showed defect of dark-induced NO production in guard cells and stomatal closure, but were normal in the dark-induced H₂O₂ generation, while stomata of mutant AtrbohD/F showed defect of dark-induced H₂O₂ and NO production and subsequent closure. Moreover, exogenous NO rescued the defect of dark-induced stomatal closure in mutants of AtrbohD/F, mek1 and mpk6, while exogenous H₂O₂ could not rescue the defect of dark-induced stomatal closure in mutants of mek1, mpk6 and nia1. These genetic and biochemical evidences not only show that MEK1-MPK6 cascade, AtRBOHD/F-dependent H₂O₂ and NIA1-dependent NO are all involved in dark-induced stomatal closure in Arabidopsis, also indicate that MEK1-MPK6 cascade functions via working downstream of H₂O₂ and upstream of NO.

A review of redox signaling and the control of MAP kinase pathway in plants

Mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) cascades are evolutionarily conserved modules among eukaryotic species that range from yeast, plants, flies to mammals. In eukaryotic cells, reactive oxygen species (ROS) has both physiological and toxic effects. Both MAPK cascades and ROS signaling are involved in plant response to various biotic and abiotic stresses. It has been observed that not only can ROS induce MAPK activation, but also that disturbing MAPK cascades can modulate ROS production and responses. This review will discuss the potential mechanisms by which ROS may activate and/or regulate MAPK cascades in plants. The role of MAPK cascades and ROS signaling in regulating gene expression, stomatal function, and programmed cell death (PCD) is also discussed. In addition, the relationship between Rboh-dependent ROS production and MAPK activation in PAMP-triggered immunity will be reviewed.

The Role of MAPK Modules and ABA during Abiotic Stress Signaling

To respond to abiotic stresses, plants have developed specific mechanisms that allow them to rapidly perceive and respond to environmental changes. The phytohormone abscisic acid (ABA) was shown to be a pivotal regulator of abiotic stress responses in plants, triggering major changes in plant physiology. The ABA core signaling pathway largely relies on the activation of SnRK2 kinases to mediate several rapid responses, including gene regulation, stomatal closure, and plant growth modulation. Mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) have also been implicated in ABA signaling, but an entire ABA-activated MAPK module was uncovered only recently. In this review, we discuss the evidence for a role of MAPK modules in the context of different plant ABA signaling pathways.

Phosphorylation of a p38-like MAPK is involved in sensing cellular redox state and drives atypical tubulin polymer assembly in angiosperms

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) imbalance is a stressful condition for plant cells accompanied by dramatic changes in tubulin cytoskeleton. Here, evidence is provided that alterations in ROS levels directly interfere with the phosphorylation state of a p38-like MAPK in the angiosperms Triticum turgidum and Arabidopsis thaliana. Both oxidative stress generators and chemicals inducing ROS scavenging or decreasing ROS production resulted in the accumulation of a phospho-p46 protein similar to p38-MAPK. Importantly, the rhd2 A. thaliana mutants exhibited a remarkable increase in levels of phospho-p46. The presence of the p38-MAPK inhibitor SB203580 attenuated the response to ROS disturbance, prevented microtubule disappearance and resulted in a dramatic decrease in the number of atypical tubulin polymers. Moreover, in roots treated simultaneously with substances inducing ROS overproduction and others resulting in low ROS levels, phospho-p46 levels and the organization of tubulin cytoskeleton were similar to controls. Collectively, our experimental data suggest, for the first time in plants, that p46 functions as a putative sensor of redox state, the activation of which initiates downstream signalling events leading to microtubule disruption and subsequent assembly of atypical tubulin polymers. Thus, p46 seems to participate in perception of ROS homeostasis disturbance as well as in cellular responses to redox imbalance.

Behind the scenes: the roles of reactive oxygen species in guard cells

Guard cells regulate stomatal pore size through integration of both endogenous and environmental signals; they are widely recognized as providing a key switching mechanism that maximizes both the efficient use of water and rates of CO₂ exchange for photosynthesis; this is essential for the adaptation of plants to water stress. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are widely considered to be an important player in guard cell signalling. In this review, we focus on recent progress concerning the role of ROS as signal molecules in controlling stomatal movement, the interaction between ROS and intrinsic and environmental response pathways, the specificity of ROS signalling, and how ROS signals are sensed and relayed. However, the picture of ROS-mediated signalling is still fragmented and the issues of ROS sensing and the specificity of ROS signalling remain unclear. Here, we review some recent advances in our understanding of ROS signalling in guard cells, with an emphasis on the main players known to interact with abscisic acid signalling.

Protein phosphorylation in stomatal movement

As research progresses on how guard cells perceive and transduce environmental cues to regulate stomatal movement, plant biologists are discovering key roles of protein phosphorylation. Early research efforts focused on characterization of ion channels and transporters in guard cell hormonal signaling. Subsequent genetic studies identified mutants of kinases and phosphatases that are defective in regulating guard cell ion channel activities, and recently proteins regulated by phosphorylation have been identified. Here we review the essential role of protein phosphorylation in ABA-induced stomatal closure and in blue light-induced stomatal opening. We also highlight evidence for the cross-talk between different pathways, which is mediated by protein phosphorylation.

Phosphorylation networks in the abscisic Acid signaling pathway

Abscisic acid (ABA) is one of the major phytohormones and regulates various processes in the plant life cycle, for example, seed development and abiotic/biotic stress responses. Recent studies have made significant progress in elucidating ABA signaling and established a simple ABA signaling model consisting of three core components: PYR/PYL/RCAR receptors, 2C-type protein phosphatases, and SnRK2 protein kinases. This model highlights the importance of protein phosphorylation mediated by SnRK2, but the downstream substrates of SnRK2 remain to be determined to complete the model. Previous studies have identified several SnRK2 substrates involving transcription factors and ion channels. Recently, SnRK2 substrates have been further surveyed by a phosphoproteomic approach, giving new insights on the SnRK2 downstream pathway. Other protein kinases, e.g., Ca(2+)-dependent protein kinase (CDPK) and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), have been identified as ABA signaling factors. Some evidence suggests that the SnRK2 pathway partially interacts with CDPK or MAPK pathways. In this chapter, recent advances in ABA signaling study are summarized, primarily focusing on two major protein kinases, SnRK2 and MAPK. Challenges for further study of the ABA-dependent protein phosphorylation network are also discussed.

ATM/ATR-dependent Tyr15 phosphorylation of cyclin-dependent kinases in response to hydroxyurea in Vicia faba root meristem cells

DNA damage or stalled replication forks activate cell cycle checkpoints. However, the regulation of metabolic pathways that are responsible for maintenance of genome integrity in plants is still largely unknown. Present research on Vicia faba root meristem cells indicates that inhibitory phosphorylation of cyclin-dependent kinases (Cdks) at Tyr15 plays a prominent role during blockage of cell cycle in response to genotoxic stress. Phosphorylation of P-loop in Cdks takes place in ATM/ATR-dependent manner. Although, Tyr15 phosphorylation upon hydroxyurea (HU) treatment was found in most cells classified to G1 and S phase, interestingly, the number of phoshpo-Tyr15-positive cells decreases in G2 phase. Presented data confirm much similarity in regulation of Cdks functions under genotoxic stress between plants and animals; however, they may also substantiate evolutionarily developed differences especially in regulation of G2/M transition between these two kingdoms.

The role of ABA and MAPK signaling pathways in plant abiotic stress responses

As sessile organisms, plants have developed specific mechanisms that allow them to rapidly perceive and respond to stresses in the environment. Among the evolutionarily conserved pathways, the ABA (abscisic acid) signaling pathway has been identified as a central regulator of abiotic stress response in plants, triggering major changes in gene expression and adaptive physiological responses. ABA induces protein kinases of the SnRK family to mediate a number of its responses. Recently, MAPK (mitogen activated protein kinase) cascades have also been shown to be implicated in ABA signaling. Therefore, besides discussing the role of ABA in abiotic stress signaling, we will also summarize the evidence for a role of MAPKs in the context of abiotic stress and ABA signaling.

SB202190 affects cell response to hydroxyurea-induced genotoxic stress in root meristems of Vicia faba

Genotoxic stress caused by a variety of chemical and physical agents may lead to DNA breaks and genome instability. Response to DNA damage depends on ATM/ATR sensor kinases and their downstream proteins, which arrange cell cycle checkpoints. Activation of ATM (ataxia-telangiectasia-mutated)/ATR (ATM and Rad 3-related) signaling pathway triggers cell cycle arrest (by keeping cyclin-Cdk complexes inactive), combined with gamma-phosphorylation of histone H2A.X and induction of DNA repair processes. However, genotoxic stress activates also mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) which may control the functions of checkpoint proteins both directly, by post-translational modifications, or indirectly, by regulation of their expression. Our results indicate that in root meristem cells of Vicia faba, MAP kinase signaling pathway takes part in response to hydroxyurea-induced genotoxic stress. It is shown that SB202190, an inhibitor of p38 MAP kinase, triggers PCC (premature chromosome condensation) more rapidly, but only if cell cycle checkpoints are alleviated by caffeine. Since SB202190 and, independently, caffeine reduces HU-mediated histone H4 Lys5 acetylation, it may be that there is a cooperation of MAP kinase signaling pathways and ATM/ATR-dependent checkpoints during response to genotoxic stress.

The ABA-INSENSITIVE-4 (ABI4) transcription factor links redox, hormone and sugar signaling pathways

The cellular reduction-oxidation (redox) hub processes information from metabolism and the environment and so regulates plant growth and defense through integration with the hormone signaling network. One key pathway of redox control involves interactions with ABSCISIC ACID (ABA). Accumulating evidence suggests that the ABA-INSENSITIVE-4 (ABI4) transcription factor plays a key role in transmitting information concerning the abundance of ascorbate and hence the ability of cells to buffer oxidative challenges. ABI4 is required for the ascorbate-dependent control of growth, a process that involves enhancement of salicylic acid (SA) signaling and inhibition of jasmonic acid (JA) signaling pathways. Low redox buffering capacity reinforces SA- JA- interactions through the mediation of ABA and ABI4 to fine-tune plant growth and defense in relation to metabolic cues and environmental challenges. Moreover, ABI4-mediated pathways of sugar sensitivity are also responsive to the abundance of ascorbate, providing evidence of overlap between redox and sugar signaling pathways.

Roles of mitogen-activated protein kinase cascades in ABA signaling

Abscisic acid (ABA) is a universal hormone in higher plants and plays a major role in various aspects of plant stress, growth, and development. Mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) cascades are key signaling modules for responding to various extracellular stimuli in plants. The available data suggest that MAPK cascades are involved in some ABA responses, including antioxidant defense, guard cell signaling, and seed germination. Some MAPK phosphatases have also been demonstrated to be implicated in ABA responses. The goal of this review is to piece together the findings concerning MAPK cascades in ABA signaling. Questions and further perspectives of the roles played by MAPK cascades in ABA signaling are also furnished.

Stomatal development and movement: the roles of MAPK signaling

Stomata are epidermal pores on plant surface used for gas exchange with the atmosphere. Stomatal development and movement are regulated by environmental and internal signals. Mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) cascades are universal transducers of extracellular signals among all eukaryotes. In plant, MAPK cascades regulate diverse cellular processes occurring during the whole ontogenetic plant life and ranging from normal cell proliferation to stress-inducing plant-to-environment interactions. Recent reports reveal that MAPK signaling is involved in both stomatal development and movement. This mini-review summarizes the roles of MAPK signaling in stomatal development and movement. How MAPK specificity is maintained in stomatal development and movement is also discussed.

Abscisic acid and hydrogen peroxide induce a novel maize group C MAP kinase gene, ZmMPK7, which is responsible for the removal of reactive oxygen species

Mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) cascades are involved in biotic and abiotic stress responses. In plants, MAPKs are classified into four groups, designated A-D. Information about group C MAPKs is limited, and, in particular, no data from maize are available. In this article, we isolated a novel group C MAPK gene, ZmMPK7, from Zea mays. Exogenous abscisic acid (ABA) and hydrogen peroxide (H(2)O(2)) induced calcium-dependant transcription of ZmMPK7. Induction of this gene in response to ABA was blocked by several reactive oxygen species (ROS) manipulators such as imidazole, Tiron, and dimethylthiourea (DMTU). This result indicates that endogenous H(2)O(2) may be required for ZmMPK7-mediated ABA signaling. Expression of ZmMPK7 in Nicotonia tobaccum caused less H(2)O(2) to accumulate and alleviated ROS-mediated injuries following submission of the plants to osmotic stress. The enhanced total peroxidase (POD) activity in transgenic tobacco plants may contribute to removal of ROS. Finally, we have shown that the ZmMPK7 protein localizes in the nucleus. These results broaden our knowledge regarding plant group C MAPK activity in response to stress signals.

MEK1/2 and p38-like MAP kinase successively mediate H(2)O(2) signaling in Vicia guard cell

As a second messenger, H(2)O(2) generation and signal transduction is subtly controlled and involves various signal elements, among which are the members of MAP kinase family. The increasing evidences indicate that both MEK1/2 and p38-like MAP protein kinase mediate ABA-induced H(2)O(2) signaling in plant cells. Here we analyze the mechanisms of similarity and difference between MEK1/2 and p38-like MAP protein kinase in mediating ABA-induced H(2)O(2) generation, inhibition of inward K(+) currents, and stomatal closure. These data suggest that activation of MEK1/2 is prior to p38-like protein kinase in Vicia guard cells.

Guard-cell signalling for hydrogen peroxide and abscisic acid

Guard cells can integrate and process multiple complex signals from the environment and respond by opening and closing stomata in order to adapt to the environmental signal. Over the past several years, considerable research progress has been made in our understanding of the role of reactive oxygen species (ROS) as essential signal molecules that mediate abscisic acid (ABA)-induced stomatal closure. In this review, we discuss hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) generation and signalling, H2O2-induced gene expression, crosstalk and the specificity between ABA and H2O2 signalling, and the cellular mechanism for ROS sensing in guard cells. This review focuses especially on the points of connection between ABA and H2O2 signalling in guard cells. The fundamental progress in understanding the role of ABA and ROS in guard cells will continue to provide a rational basis for biotechnological improvements in the development of drought-tolerant crop plants with improved water-use efficiency.