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Younkin GC, Alani ML, Züst T, Jander G. Four enzymes control natural variation in the steroid core of Erysimum cardenolides. bioRxiv 2024:2024.04.10.588904. [PMID: 38645095 PMCID: PMC11030354 DOI: 10.1101/2024.04.10.588904] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/23/2024]
Abstract
Plants commonly produce families of structurally related metabolites with similar defensive functions. This apparent redundancy raises the question of underlying molecular mechanisms and adaptive benefits of such chemical variation. Cardenolides, a class defensive compounds found in the wallflower genus Erysimum (L., Brassicaceae) and scattered across other plant families, show substantial structural variation, with glycosylation and hydroxylation being common modifications of a steroid core, which itself may vary in terms of stereochemistry and saturation. Through a combination of chemical mutagenesis and analysis of gene coexpression networks, we identified four enzymes involved in cardenolide biosynthesis in Erysimum that work together to determine stereochemistry at carbon 5 of the steroid core: Ec3βHSD, a 3β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase, Ec3KSI, a ketosteroid isomerase, EcP5βR2, a progesterone 5β-reductase, and EcDET2, a steroid 5α-reductase. We biochemically characterized the activity of these enzymes in vitro and generated CRISPR/Cas9 knockout lines to confirm activity in vivo. Cardenolide biosynthesis was not eliminated in any of the knockouts. Instead, mutant plants accumulated cardenolides with altered saturation and stereochemistry of the steroid core. Furthermore, we found variation in carbon 5 configuration among the cardenolides of 44 species of Erysimum, where the occurrence of some 5β-cardenolides is associated with the expression and sequence of P5βR2. This may have allowed Erysimum species to fine-tune their defensive profiles to target specific herbivore populations over the course of evolution. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Plants use an array of toxic compounds to defend themselves from attack against insects and other herbivores. One mechanism through which plants may evolve more toxic compounds is through modifications to the structure of compounds they already produce. In this study, we show how plants in the wallflower genus Erysimum use four enzymes to fine-tune the structure of toxic metabolites called cardenolides. Natural variation in the sequence and expression of a single enzyme called progesterone 5β-reductase 2 partly explains the variation in cardenolides observed across the Erysimum genus. These alterations to cardenolide structure over the course of evolution suggests that there may be context-dependent benefits to Erysimum to invest in one cardenolide variant over another.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gordon C. Younkin
- Boyce Thompson Institute, Ithaca, New York 14853
- Plant Biology Section, School of Integrative Plant Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853
| | | | - Tobias Züst
- Institute of Systematic and Evolutionary Botany, University of Zurich, 8008 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Georg Jander
- Boyce Thompson Institute, Ithaca, New York 14853
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Martinelli L, Bihanic C, Bony A, Gros F, Conart C, Fiorucci S, Casabianca H, Schiets F, Chietera G, Boachon B, Blerot B, Baudino S, Jullien F, Saint-Marcoux D. Citronellol biosynthesis in pelargonium is a multistep pathway involving progesterone 5β-reductase and/or iridoid synthase-like enzymes. Plant Physiol 2024; 194:1006-1023. [PMID: 37831417 DOI: 10.1093/plphys/kiad550] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2023] [Revised: 09/18/2023] [Accepted: 09/25/2023] [Indexed: 10/14/2023]
Abstract
Citronellol is a pleasant-smelling compound produced in rose (Rosa spp.) flowers and in the leaves of many aromatic plants, including pelargoniums (Pelargonium spp.). Although geraniol production has been well studied in several plants, citronellol biosynthesis has been documented only in crab-lipped spider orchid (Caladenia plicata) and its mechanism remains open to question in other species. We therefore profiled 10 pelargonium accessions using RNA sequencing and gas chromatography-MS analysis. Three enzymes from the progesterone 5β-reductase and/or iridoid synthase-like enzymes (PRISE) family were characterized in vitroand subsequently identified as citral reductases (named PhCIRs). Transgenic RNAi lines supported a role for PhCIRs in the biosynthesis of citronellol as well as in the production of mint-scented terpenes. Despite their high amino acid sequence identity, the 3 enzymes showed contrasting stereoselectivity, either producing mainly (S)-citronellal or a racemate of both (R)- and (S)-citronellal. Using site-directed mutagenesis, we identified a single amino acid substitution as being primarily responsible for the enzyme's enantioselectivity. Phylogenetic analysis of pelargonium PRISEs revealed 3 clades and 7 groups of orthologs. PRISEs from different groups exhibited differential affinities toward substrates (citral and progesterone) and cofactors (NADH/NADPH), but most were able to reduce both substrates, prompting hypotheses regarding the evolutionary history of PhCIRs. Our results demonstrate that pelargoniums evolved citronellol biosynthesis independently through a 3-step pathway involving PRISE homologs and both citral and citronellal as intermediates. In addition, these enzymes control the enantiomeric ratio of citronellol thanks to small alterations of the catalytic site.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laure Martinelli
- Laboratoire BVpam-UMR 5079, Université Jean Monnet Saint-Étienne, CNRS, Saint-Étienne 42023, France
- Department of Biochemistry, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Jena 07455, Germany
| | - Camille Bihanic
- Laboratoire BVpam-UMR 5079, Université Jean Monnet Saint-Étienne, CNRS, Saint-Étienne 42023, France
| | - Aurélie Bony
- Laboratoire BVpam-UMR 5079, Université Jean Monnet Saint-Étienne, CNRS, Saint-Étienne 42023, France
| | - Florence Gros
- Laboratoire BVpam-UMR 5079, Université Jean Monnet Saint-Étienne, CNRS, Saint-Étienne 42023, France
| | - Corentin Conart
- Laboratoire BVpam-UMR 5079, Université Jean Monnet Saint-Étienne, CNRS, Saint-Étienne 42023, France
| | - Sébastien Fiorucci
- Institut de Chimie de Nice-UMR 7272, Université Côte d'Azur, CNRS, Nice 06108, France
| | - Hervé Casabianca
- Institut des Sciences Analytiques-UMR 5280, Université de Lyon, CNRS, Villeurbanne 69100, France
| | - Frédéric Schiets
- Institut des Sciences Analytiques-UMR 5280, Université de Lyon, CNRS, Villeurbanne 69100, France
| | | | - Benoît Boachon
- Laboratoire BVpam-UMR 5079, Université Jean Monnet Saint-Étienne, CNRS, Saint-Étienne 42023, France
| | | | - Sylvie Baudino
- Laboratoire BVpam-UMR 5079, Université Jean Monnet Saint-Étienne, CNRS, Saint-Étienne 42023, France
| | - Frédéric Jullien
- Laboratoire BVpam-UMR 5079, Université Jean Monnet Saint-Étienne, CNRS, Saint-Étienne 42023, France
| | - Denis Saint-Marcoux
- Laboratoire BVpam-UMR 5079, Université Jean Monnet Saint-Étienne, CNRS, Saint-Étienne 42023, France
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Shiko G, Paulmann MJ, Feistel F, Ntefidou M, Hermann-Ene V, Vetter W, Kost B, Kunert G, Zedler JAZ, Reichelt M, Oelmüller R, Klein J. Occurrence and conversion of progestogens and androgens are conserved in land plants. New Phytol 2023; 240:318-337. [PMID: 37559351 DOI: 10.1111/nph.19163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2023] [Accepted: 06/28/2023] [Indexed: 08/11/2023]
Abstract
Progestogens and androgens have been found in many plants, but little is known about their biosynthesis and the evolution of steroidogenesis in these organisms. Here, we show that the occurrence and biosynthesis of progestogens and androgens are conserved across the viridiplantae lineage. An UHPLC-ESI-MS/MS method allowed high-throughput analysis of the occurrence and chemical conversion of progestogens and androgens in 41 species across the green plant lineage. Dehydroepiandrosterone, testosterone, and 5α-dihydrotestosterone are plants' most abundant mammalian-like steroids. Progestogens are converted into 17α-hydroxyprogesterone and 5α-pregnane-3,20-dione. Androgens are converted into testosterone and 5α-dihydrotestosterone. 17,20-Lyases, essential for converting progestogens to androgens, seem to be most effective in monocot species. Our data suggest that the occurrence of progestogens and androgens is highly conserved in plants, and their biosynthesis might favor a route using the Δ4 pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Glendis Shiko
- Department of Plant Physiology, Matthias-Schleiden-Institute for Genetics, Bioinformatics and Molecular Botany, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Jena, 07743, Germany
| | - Max-Jonas Paulmann
- Department of Plant Physiology, Matthias-Schleiden-Institute for Genetics, Bioinformatics and Molecular Botany, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Jena, 07743, Germany
| | - Felix Feistel
- Department for Biochemistry, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, 07743, Jena, Germany
| | - Maria Ntefidou
- Cell Biology, Department of Biology, University Erlangen-Nuremberg, 91058, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Vanessa Hermann-Ene
- Institute of Food Chemistry, University of Hohenheim, 70599, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Walter Vetter
- Institute of Food Chemistry, University of Hohenheim, 70599, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Benedikt Kost
- Cell Biology, Department of Biology, University Erlangen-Nuremberg, 91058, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Grit Kunert
- Department for Biochemistry, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, 07743, Jena, Germany
| | - Julie A Z Zedler
- Synthetic Biology of Photosynthetic Organisms, Matthias Schleiden Institute for Genetics, Bioinformatics and Molecular Botany, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, 07743, Jena, Germany
| | - Michael Reichelt
- Department for Biochemistry, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, 07743, Jena, Germany
| | - Ralf Oelmüller
- Department of Plant Physiology, Matthias-Schleiden-Institute for Genetics, Bioinformatics and Molecular Botany, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Jena, 07743, Germany
| | - Jan Klein
- Department of Plant Physiology, Matthias-Schleiden-Institute for Genetics, Bioinformatics and Molecular Botany, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Jena, 07743, Germany
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Leykauf T, Klein J, Ernst M, Dorfner M, Ignatova A, Kreis W, Lanig H, Munkert J. Overexpression and RNAi-mediated Knockdown of Two 3β-hydroxy-Δ5-steroid dehydrogenase Genes in Digitalis lanata Shoot Cultures Reveal Their Role in Cardenolide Biosynthesis. Planta Med 2023. [PMID: 37187191 DOI: 10.1055/a-2074-9186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
3β-hydroxy-Δ5-steroid dehydrogenases (3βHSDs) are supposed to be involved in 5β-cardenolide biosynthesis. Here, a novel 3βHSD (Dl3βHSD2) was isolated from Digitalis lanata shoot cultures and expressed in E. coli. Recombinant Dl3βHSD1 and Dl3βHSD2 shared 70% amino acid identity, reduced various 3-oxopregnanes and oxidised 3-hydroxypregnanes, but only rDl3βHSD2 converted small ketones and secondary alcohols efficiently. To explain these differences in substrate specificity, we established homology models using borneol dehydrogenase of Salvia rosmarinus (6zyz) as the template. Hydrophobicity and amino acid residues in the binding pocket may explain the difference in enzyme activities and substrate preferences. Compared to Dl3βHSD1, Dl3βHSD2 is weakly expressed in D. lanata shoots. High constitutive expression of Dl3βHSDs was realised by Agrobacterium-mediated transfer of Dl3βHSD genes fused to the CaMV-35S promotor into the genome of D. lanata wild type shoot cultures. Transformed shoots (35S:Dl3βHSD1 and 35S:Dl3βHSD2) accumulated less cardenolides than controls. The levels of reduced glutathione (GSH), which is known to inhibit cardenolide formation, were higher in the 35S:Dl3βHSD1 lines than in the controls. In the 35S:Dl3βHSD1 lines cardenolide levels were restored after adding of the substrate pregnane-3,20-dione in combination with buthionine-sulfoximine (BSO), an inhibitor of GSH formation. RNAi-mediated knockdown of the Dl3βHSD1 yielded several shoot culture lines with strongly reduced cardenolide levels. In these lines, cardenolide biosynthesis was fully restored after addition of the downstream precursor pregnan-3β-ol-20-one, whereas upstream precursors such as progesterone had no effect, indicating that no shunt pathway could overcome the Dl3βHSD1 knockdown. These results can be taken as the first direct proof that Dl3βHSD1 is indeed involved in 5β-cardenolide biosynthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tim Leykauf
- Department of Biology, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Jan Klein
- Department of Plant Physiology, Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena, Germany
| | - Mona Ernst
- Department of Biology, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Maja Dorfner
- Department of Biology, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Anastasiia Ignatova
- Department of Biology, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Wolfgang Kreis
- Department of Biology, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Harald Lanig
- National High Performance Computing Center (NHR@FAU), Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Jennifer Munkert
- Department of Biology, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
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Raghavan I, Ravi Gopal B, Carroll E, Wang ZQ. Cardenolide Increase in Foxglove after 2,1,3-Benzothiadiazole Treatment Reveals a Potential Link between Cardenolide and Phytosterol Biosynthesis. Plant Cell Physiol 2023; 64:107-116. [PMID: 36222367 DOI: 10.1093/pcp/pcac144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2021] [Revised: 10/04/2022] [Accepted: 10/11/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Cardenolides are steroidal metabolites in Digitalis lanata with potent cardioactive effects on animals. In plants, cardenolides are likely involved in various stress responses. However, the molecular mechanism of cardenolide increase during stresses is mostly unknown. Additionally, cardenolides are proposed to arise from cholesterol, but indirect results show that phytosterols may also be substrates for cardenolide biosynthesis. Here, we show that cardenolides increased after methyl jasmonate (MJ), sorbitol, potassium chloride (KCl) and salicylic acid analog [2,1,3-benzothiadiazole (BTH)] treatments. However, the expression of three known genes for cardenolide biosynthesis did not correlate well with these increases. Specifically, the expression of progesterone-5β-reductases (P5βR and P5βR2) did not correlate with the cardenolide increase. The expression of 3β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (3βHSD) correlated with changes in cardenolide levels only during the BTH treatment. Mining the D. lanata transcriptome identified genes involved in cholesterol and phytosterol biosynthesis: C24 sterol sidechain reductase 1 (SSR1), C4 sterol methyl oxidase 1, and 3 (SMO1 and SMO3). Surprisingly, the expression of all three genes correlated well with the cardenolide increase after the BTH treatment. Phylogenetic analysis showed that SSR1 is likely involved in both cholesterol and phytosterol biosynthesis. In addition, SMO1 is likely specific to phytosterol biosynthesis, and SMO3 is specific to cholesterol biosynthesis. These results suggest that stress-induced increase of cardenolides in foxglove may correlate with cholesterol and phytosterol biosynthesis. In summary, this work shows that cardenolides are important for stress responses in D. lanata and reveals a potential link between phytosterol and cardenolide biosynthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Indu Raghavan
- Department of Biological Sciences, University at Buffalo, The State University of New York, 109 Cooke Hall, Buffalo, NY 14260, USA
| | - Baradwaj Ravi Gopal
- Department of Biological Sciences, University at Buffalo, The State University of New York, 109 Cooke Hall, Buffalo, NY 14260, USA
| | - Emily Carroll
- Department of Biological Sciences, University at Buffalo, The State University of New York, 109 Cooke Hall, Buffalo, NY 14260, USA
| | - Zhen Q Wang
- Department of Biological Sciences, University at Buffalo, The State University of New York, 109 Cooke Hall, Buffalo, NY 14260, USA
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Li H, Chen L, Chen H, Xue R, Wang Y, Song J. The Role of Plant Progesterone in Regulating Growth, Development, and Biotic/Abiotic Stress Responses. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:10945. [PMID: 36142864 DOI: 10.3390/ijms231810945] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2022] [Revised: 09/16/2022] [Accepted: 09/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Progesterone is a steroid hormone that performs important functions in mammals. However, studies on its physiological functions in plants have gradually increased in recent years. Therefore, this review summarizes the regulatory functions of progesterone on plant growth and development, as well as its response to stress. Moreover, the plant metabolic processes of progesterone are also discussed. Overall, progesterone is ubiquitous in plants and can regulate numerous plant physiological processes at low concentrations. Since progesterone shares similar characteristics with plant hormones, it is expected to become a candidate for plant hormone. However, most of the current research on progesterone in plants is limited to the physiological level, and more molecular level research is needed to clarify progesterone signaling pathways.
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Klein J, Ernst M, Christmann A, Tropper M, Leykauf T, Kreis W, Munkert J. Knockout of Arabidopsis thaliana VEP1, Encoding a PRISE (Progesterone 5β-Reductase/Iridoid Synthase-Like Enzyme), Leads to Metabolic Changes in Response to Exogenous Methyl Vinyl Ketone (MVK). Metabolites 2021; 12:11. [PMID: 35050133 DOI: 10.3390/metabo12010011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2021] [Revised: 11/24/2021] [Accepted: 12/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Small or specialized natural products (SNAPs) produced by plants vary greatly in structure and function, leading to selective advantages during evolution. With a limited number of genes available, a high promiscuity of the enzymes involved allows the generation of a broad range of SNAPs in complex metabolic networks. Comparative metabolic studies may help to understand why—or why not—certain SNAPs are produced in plants. Here, we used the wound-induced, vein patterning regulating VEP1 (AtStR1, At4g24220) and its paralogue gene on locus At5g58750 (AtStR2) from Arabidopsis to study this issue. The enzymes encoded by VEP1-like genes were clustered under the term PRISEs (progesterone 5β-reductase/iridoid synthase-like enzymes) as it was previously demonstrated that they are involved in cardenolide and/or iridoid biosynthesis in other plants. In order to further understand the general role of PRISEs and to detect additional more “accidental” roles we herein characterized A. thaliana steroid reductase 1 (AtStR1) and compared it to A. thaliana steroid reductase 2 (AtStR2). We used A. thaliana Col-0 wildtype plants as well as VEP1 knockout mutants and VEP1 knockout mutants overexpressing either AtStR1 or AtStR2 to investigate the effects on vein patterning and on the stress response after treatment with methyl vinyl ketone (MVK). Our results added evidence to the assumption that AtStR1 and AtStR2, as well as PRISEs in general, play specific roles in stress and defense situations and may be responsible for sudden metabolic shifts.
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Sameeullah M, Yildirim M, Aslam N, Baloğlu MC, Yucesan B, Lössl AG, Saba K, Waheed MT, Gurel E. Plastidial Expression of 3β-Hydroxysteroid Dehydrogenase and Progesterone 5β-Reductase Genes Confer Enhanced Salt Tolerance in Tobacco. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:11736. [PMID: 34769166 PMCID: PMC8584194 DOI: 10.3390/ijms222111736] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2021] [Revised: 10/17/2021] [Accepted: 10/25/2021] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
The short-chain dehydrogenase/reductase (SDR) gene family is widely distributed in all kingdoms of life. The SDR genes, 3β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (3β-HSD) and progesterone 5-β-reductases (P5βR1, P5βR2) play a crucial role in cardenolide biosynthesis pathway in the Digitalis species. However, their role in plant stress, especially in salinity stress management, remains unexplored. In the present study, transplastomic tobacco plants were developed by inserting the 3β-HSD, P5βR1 and P5βR2 genes. The integration of transgenes in plastomes, copy number and transgene expression at transcript and protein level in transplastomic plants were confirmed by PCR, end-to-end PCR, qRT-PCR and Western blot analysis, respectively. Subcellular localization analysis showed that 3β-HSD and P5βR1 are cytoplasmic, and P5βR2 is tonoplast-localized. Transplastomic lines showed enhanced growth in terms of biomass and chlorophyll content compared to wild type (WT) under 300 mM salt stress. Under salt stress, transplastomic lines remained greener without negative impact on shoot or root growth compared to the WT. The salt-tolerant transplastomic lines exhibited enhanced levels of a series of metabolites (sucrose, glutamate, glutamine and proline) under control and NaCl stress. Furthermore, a lower Na+/K+ ratio in transplastomic lines was also observed. The salt tolerance, mediated by plastidial expression of the 3β-HSD, P5βR1 and P5βR2 genes, could be due to the involvement in the upregulation of nitrogen assimilation, osmolytes as well as lower Na+/K+ ratio. Taken together, the plastid-based expression of the SDR genes leading to enhanced salt tolerance, which opens a window for developing saline-tolerant plants via plastid genetic engineering.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Sameeullah
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science and Literature, Bolu Abant Izzet Baysal University, Bolu 14030, Turkey; (M.S.); (N.A.)
- Center for Innovative Food Technologies Development, Application and Research, Bolu Abant Izzet Baysal University, Bolu 14030, Turkey
| | - Muhammet Yildirim
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science and Literature, Bolu Abant Izzet Baysal University, Bolu 14030, Turkey;
| | - Noreen Aslam
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science and Literature, Bolu Abant Izzet Baysal University, Bolu 14030, Turkey; (M.S.); (N.A.)
| | - Mehmet Cengiz Baloğlu
- Department of Genetics and Bioengineering, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Kastamonu University, Kastamonu 14030, Turkey;
| | - Buhara Yucesan
- Department of Seed Science and Technology, Faculty of Agriculture, Bolu Abant Izzet Baysal University, Bolu 14030, Turkey;
| | - Andreas G. Lössl
- Department of Applied Plant Sciences and Plant Biotechnology (DAPP), University of Natural Resources and Applied Life Sciences (BOKU), 1180 Vienna, Austria;
| | - Kiran Saba
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad 45320, Pakistan;
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Life Sciences, Shaheed Benazir Bhutto Women University, Peshawar 25000, Pakistan
| | - Mohammad Tahir Waheed
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad 45320, Pakistan;
| | - Ekrem Gurel
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science and Literature, Bolu Abant Izzet Baysal University, Bolu 14030, Turkey; (M.S.); (N.A.)
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