Gelled double emulsions as delivery systems for hydroxytyrosol and n-3 fatty acids in healthy pork patties

Effect of variation in basic emulsion structure and polysaccharide content on the physicochemical properties and structure of composite-based emulsion gels as cube fat mimetics

This study aimed to reveal the effect of different basic emulsion structures (W/O/W and O/W) and polysaccharide additions on protein-polysaccharide composite-based emulsion gels utilizing soybean protein isolate, palm oil and konjac glucomannan. The results of texture profile, rheological tests, microstructure observations, and oral tribology showed that basic emulsion structures and konjac glucomannan addition had significant effect on the emulsion gels' properties, while the impact of konjac glucomannan addition was stronger. W/O/W double emulsion gels (DEG) exhibited lower oral friction coefficients and obtained higher scores for oiliness and juiciness during the sensory evaluation. However, O/W single emulsion gels (SEG) displayed a firmer texture and higher chewiness, a 29.62% and 49.57% increase compared to the DEG at 7% konjac glucomannan addition on the hardness and chewiness respectively. It has demonstrated the emulsion gels' potential as cube fat mimetics and feasibility of adjusting their properties by changing the basic emulsion structure.

Quality, Thermo-Rheology, and Microstructure Characteristics of Cubic Fat Substituted Pork Patties with Composite Emulsion Gel Composed of Konjac Glucomannan and Soy Protein Isolate

Composite emulsion gel can effectively mimic animal adipose tissue. In this study, composite emulsion gels composed of soy protein isolates and konjac glucomannan (KGM) were prepared as plant-based cubic fat substitutes (CFS). The effects of CFS on the quality and structure of pork patties were investigated in terms of the proximate composition, lipid oxidation stability, technological characteristics, color, sensory attributes, texture, thermo-rheological behavior, and microstructure. CFS samples composed of various ratios of KGM were added to lean meat patties to ascertain the optimal CFS composition for its potential replacement of pork back fat in patties. The addition of CFS containing 7.0% KGM was found to decrease the hardness of the lean meat patties by 71.98% while simultaneously improving their sensory quality. The replacement of pork back fat with CFS also reduced the fat content of the patties to as little as 3.65%. Furthermore, the addition of CFS enhanced the technological characteristics, lipid oxidation stability, and surface color of the fat-replaced patties, with no significant impact on their overall acceptability. The gel network of the patties was shown to be fine and remained compact as the fat replacement ratio increased to 75%, while the texture parameters, storage modulus, and fractal dimension all increased. Quality and structure improvements may allow the composite emulsion gels to replace fat in pork patties to support a healthy diet. This study may be beneficial for the application and development of plant-based cubic fat substitutes.

Potential of Cricket (Acheta domesticus) Flour as a Lean Meat Replacer in the Development of Beef Patties

This study examined the incorporation of cricket (Acheta domesticus) flour (CF) (0, control; 5.0%, CF5.0; 7.5%, CF7.5; and 10.0%, CF10.0) as a lean meat replacer in beef patties and its impact on composition, microbiological, sensory, and technological properties, as well as its influence on the cooking process. The inclusion of CF led to beef patties with significantly higher protein levels than the control group. Additionally, an elevation in total viable (TVC) and lactic acid bacteria (LAB) counts was observed. However, Enterobacteriaceae counts remained at safe levels. CF5.0 demonstrated similar sensory scores and purchase intention to the control treatment. CF7.5 and CF10.0 showed comparable sensory scores to the control except for texture attributes. The inclusion of CF significantly reduced cooking loss and diameter reduction values. Beef patties with CF were notably firmer and had a browner color than the control. In general, the cooking process impacted the technological properties similarly in both the control and beef patties with CF. In all cooked samples, no significant differences in pH, redness (a*), or texture were observed. This study demonstrated that incorporating up to 5.0% CF into beef patties is optimal in terms of composition, technological, sensorial, and cooking properties.

Reformulation of Bologna Sausage by Total Pork Backfat Replacement with an Emulsion Gel Based on Olive, Walnut, and Chia Oils, and Stabilized with Chitosan

Bologna sausage, also called "la grassa", is a very popular meat product despite its high fat content and lipidic profile raising serious negative health concerns. An emulsion gel containing olive, walnut, and chia oils, stabilized with soy protein isolate, transglutaminase, and chitosan, was used as total pork backfat replacer in Bologna sausage. The nutritional, textural, and technological properties were assessed and sensory analyses were conducted. Color, pH, and lipid oxidation were monitored during 18 days of cold storage (4 °C). A normal fat Bologna sausage was used as a control reference. A decrease in the n-6/n-3 ratio from 16.85 to 1.86 (by 9 times) was achieved in the reformulated product as compared with the control, while the PUFA/SFA ratio increased from 0.57 to 1.61. Color measurements indicated that the lightness and yellowness increased while redness slightly decreased in the reformulated product. The total substitution of pork backfat in Bologna sausage by the emulsion gel developed in the present study was realized without significantly affecting the technological properties, the oxidative stability and the overall acceptance by the consumers.

Application of guar (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba L.) gum in food technologies: A review of properties and mechanisms of action

With the world continuing to push toward modernization and the consumption of processed foods growing at an exponential rate, the demand for texturizing agents and natural additives has also risen as a result. It has become increasingly common to use thickening agents in food products to modify their rheological and textural properties and enhance their quality characteristics. They can be divided into (1) animal derived (chitosan and isinglass), (2) fermentation produced (xanthan and curdlan), (3) plant fragments (pectin and cellulose), (4) seaweed extracts (agar and alginate), and (5) seed flours (guar gum and locust bean gum). The primary functions of these materials are to improve moisture binding capacity, modify structural properties, and alter flow behavior. In addition, some have another responsibility in the food sector, such as the main ingredient in the delivery systems (encapsulation) and nanocomposites. A galactomannan polysaccharide extracted from guar beans (Cyamopsis tetragonolobus), known as guar gum (GG), is one of them, which has a wide range of utilities and possesses popularity among scientists and consumers. In the world of modernization, GG has found its way into numerous industries for use in food, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, textiles, and explosives. Due to its ability to form hydrogen bonds with water molecules, it imparts significant thickening, gelling, and binding properties to the solution as well as increases its viscosity. Therefore, this study is aimed to investigate the characteristics, mechanisms, and applications of GG in different food technologies.

Stabilized soy protein emulsion enriched with silicon and containing or not methylcellulose as novel technological alternatives to reduce animal fat digestion

During the last decade, the consumption of animal saturated fat has been associated with an increased risk of chronic disease. Experience shows that changing the dietary habits of the population is a complicated and slow process, so technological strategies offer new possibilities for the development of functional foods. The present work is focused on studying the impact of using a food-grade non-ionic hydrocolloid (methylcellulose; MC) and/or the inclusion of silicon (Si) as a bioactive compound in pork lard emulsions stabilized with soy protein concentrate (SPC), on the structure, rheology, lipid digestibility and Si bioaccesibility during in vitro gastrointestinal digestion (GID). Four emulsions (SPC, SPC/Si, SPC/MC and SPC/MC/Si) were prepared with a final biopolymer (SPC and/or MC) concentration of 4% and 0.24% Si. The results showed a lower degree of lipid digestion in SPC/MC compared with SPC, specifically at the end of the intestinal phase. Moreover, Si partially reduced fat digestion only when incorporated into the SPC-stabilized emulsion, while this effect was lost in SPC/MC/Si. This was probably due to its retention inside the matrix emulsion, which resulted in lower bioaccesibility than in SPC/Si. Additionally, the correlation between the flow behavior index (n) and the lipid absorbable fraction was significant, suggesting that n can be a predictive marker of the extent of lipolysis. Concretely, our results revealed that SPC/Si and SPC/MC can be used as pork fat digestion reducers and thus, they can replace pork lard in the reformulation of animal products with potential health benefits.

Effect of vegetable oil hydrogel emulsion as a fat substitute on the physicochemical properties, fatty acid profile, and color stability of modified atmospheric packaged buffalo burgers

Buffalo burgers were prepared with 50% or 100% buffalo backfat substitution using walnut, and peanut oil emulsion gels (EGs) blended with chia flour. Burgers were stored at 2 °C in modified atmosphere packaging for 12 days. The fat replacement decreased total fat by 26% and increased ash by 34%. Hardness and chewiness decreased with increasing the fat replacement; however, it did not affect springiness and cohesiveness values. Burger reformulations led to an increase in cooking yield (10%). Walnut oil EGs increased PUFA level up to 458%. Both oils enhanced PUFA/SFA and ω-6/ω-3 ratios and atherogenic and thrombogenic indices. Concerning color attribute, about 66% reduction was observed in redness values during the storage period of 12 days. Moreover, the sensory scores for all attributes, i.e., appearance, odor, flavor, and juiciness, were in the acceptable range of five or above in the reformulated burgers. In conclusion, 50% fat substitution using walnut and peanut oil EGs improved the nutritional profile of buffalo burgers without compromising the technological and sensory characteristics.

Application of Emulsion Gels as Fat Substitutes in Meat Products

Although traditional meat products are highly popular with consumers, the high levels of unsaturated fatty acids and cholesterol present significant health concerns. However, simply using plant oil rich in unsaturated fatty acids to replace animal fat in meat products causes a decline in product quality, such as lower levels of juiciness and hardness. Therefore, it is necessary to develop a fat substitute that can ensure the sensory quality of the product while reducing its fat content. Consequently, using emulsion gels to produce structured oils or introducing functional ingredients has attracted substantial attention for replacing the fat in meat products. This paper delineated emulsion gels into protein, polysaccharide, and protein–polysaccharide compound according to the matrix. The preparation methods and the application of the three emulsion gels as fat substitutes in meat products were reviewed. Since it displayed a unique separation structure, the double emulsion was highly suitable for encapsulating bioactive substances, such as functional oils, flavor components, and functional factors, while it also exhibited significant potential for developing low-fat or functional healthy meat products. This paper summarized the studies involving the utilization of double emulsion and gelled double emulsion as fat replacement agents to provide a theoretical basis for related research and new insight into the development of low-fat meat products.

Progress in Colloid Delivery Systems for Protection and Delivery of Phenolic Bioactive Compounds: Two Study Cases—Hydroxytyrosol and Curcumin

Insufficient intake of beneficial food components into the human body is a major issue for many people. Among the strategies proposed to overcome this complication, colloid systems have been proven to offer successful solutions in many cases. The scientific community agrees that the production of colloid delivery systems is a good way to adequately protect and deliver nutritional components. In this review, we present the recent advances on bioactive phenolic compounds delivery mediated by colloid systems. As we are aware that this field is constantly evolving, we have focused our attention on the progress made in recent years in this specific field. To achieve this goal, structural and dynamic aspects of different colloid delivery systems, and the various interactions with two bioactive constituents, are presented and discussed. The choice of the appropriate delivery system for a given molecule depends on whether the drug is incorporated in an aqueous or hydrophobic environment. With this in mind, the aim of this evaluation was focused on two case studies, one representative of hydrophobic phenolic compounds and the other of hydrophilic ones. In particular, hydroxytyrosol was selected as a bioactive phenol with a hydrophilic character, while curcumin was selected as typical representative hydrophobic molecules.

Cocoa Coproducts-Based and Walnut Oil Gelled Emulsion as Animal Fat Replacer and Healthy Bioactive Source in Beef Burgers

The aim of this work was to evaluate the effects on the chemical, physic-chemical, technological, and sensory properties of beef burger when replacing different quantities of fat (50 and 100%) with different levels of oil-in-water-gelled emulsion elaborated with walnut oil and cocoa bean shell flour (GECW). The chemical composition of the samples was affected by the fat replacement. The reformulation increased the moisture and ash content while the fat and protein content decreased with respect to the control sample. The linolenic and linolenic acid content of the beef burgers increased as the GECW replacement was augmented. The polyunsaturated fatty/saturated fatty acid ratio increased in both raw and cooked burgers, whereas the atherogenicity index and thrombogenicity index were reduced in both raw and cooked burgers with respect to the control sample. The use of GECW as a fat replacer was found to be effective in improving the cooking loss. Similarly, there were positive effects on reductions in the diameter and the increases in the thickness of the beef burgers. Regarding lipid stability, in both the raw and cooked burgers, the reformulation increased the 2-thiobarbituric acid reactive substance (TBARs) values with respect to the control sample. In both types of reformulated burgers, three bound polyphenols (mainly catechin and epicatechin) and two free polyphenols were identified, as were methylxanthines theobromine and caffeine. The sensory properties for the control and partial pork backfat replacement treatments were similar, while the sample with the total pork backfat replacement treatment showed the lowest scores. The blend of cocoa bean shell flour and walnut oil could be used as new ingredients for the development of beef burgers with a healthier nutritional profile without demeriting their sensory or cooking characteristics and physic-chemical properties.

Functional Meat Products as Oxidative Stress Modulators: A Review

High meat consumption has been associated with increased oxidative stress mainly due to the generation of oxidized compounds in the body, such as malondialdehyde, 4-hydroxy-nonenal, oxysterols, or protein carbonyls, which can induce oxidative damage. Meat products are excellent matrices for introducing different bioactive compounds, to obtain functional meat products aimed at minimizing the pro-oxidant effects associated with high meat consumption. Therefore, this review aims to summarize the concept and preparation of healthy and functional meat, which could benefit antioxidant status. Likewise, the key strategies regarding meat production and storage as well as ingredients used (e.g., minerals, polyphenols, fatty acids, walnuts) for developing these functional meats are detailed. Although most effort has been made to reduce the oxidation status of meat, newly emerging approaches also aim to improve the oxidation status of consumers of meat products. Thus, we will delve into the relation between functional meats and their health effects on consumers. In this review, animal trials and intervention studies are discussed, ascertaining the extent of functional meat products' properties (e.g., neutralizing reactive oxygen species formation and increasing the antioxidant response). The effects of functional meat products in the frame of diet-gene interactions are analyzed to 1) discover target subjects that would benefit from their consumption, and 2) understand the molecular mechanisms that ensure precision in the prevention and treatment of diseases, where high oxidative stress takes place. Long-term intervention-controlled studies, testing different types and amounts of functional meat, are also necessary to ascertain their positive impact on degenerative diseases.

Impact of Culinary Procedures on Nutritional and Technological Properties of Reduced-Fat Longanizas Formulated with Chia (Salvia hispanica L.) or Oat (Avena sativa L.) Emulsion Gel

This paper evaluates how grilling, a traditional culinary procedure for fresh meat products, affects the composition and technological properties of healthy longanizas formulated with chia (Salvia hispanica L.) (C-RF) and oat (Avena sativa L.) (O-RF) emulsion gels (EGs) as animal fat replacers. The use of EGs, regardless of whether they contain chia or oat, improved longaniza performance during cooking as they lost less (p < 0.05) water and fat. The composition of cooked sausages was affected by their formulation, particularly those with chia EG (C-RF) which featured the highest polyunsaturated fatty acid content, mainly due to the higher level of α-linolenic fatty acid (1.09 g/100 g of product). Chia and oat EGs in C-RF and O-RF allow longanizas to be labeled with nutritional and health claims under European law. In general, this culinary procedure increases (p < 0.05) the lightness, lipid oxidation and texture parameters of all samples.

Protein-based hydrogelled emulsions and their application as fat replacers in meat products: A review

Recent consumers' concerns about diet and its health benefits has triggered a reduction in consumption of foods rich in sugar, fat, salt, and chemical additives. As a result, an expanded market for functional foods has arisen. In particular, high-fat foods normally composed by saturated fatty acids, cholesterol and trans-fatty acids have been reformulated to be healthier. The primary source of saturated fat ingested by humans includes meats and their by-products that have animal fat as lipid source. The reformulation of these products therefore represents an important strategy to make them healthier for human consumption. Substituting solid fat by unsaturated oils usually affects the texture of the products, and therefore, new structuring methods must be developed to provide vegetable oils a similar characteristic to solid fats and improve their functional and health-related properties. Among these structural models, gelled emulsions (GE) show great potential to be used as healthier lipid ingredients in low-calorie and reduced-fat products, including healthier meat products. This review addresses the GE properties to be used as structuring agent, their in vitro bioaccessibility in meat products and effect on technological, sensorial, microstructural and microbiological characteristics.

Quality Characteristics of Healthy Dry Fermented Sausages Formulated with a Mixture of Olive and Chia Oil Structured in Oleogel or Emulsion Gel as Animal Fat Replacer

The present work evaluates the suitability of beeswax oleogels and emulsion gel prepared with a healthy lipid mixture (olive and chia oils) as pork fat replacers for the development of a dry fermented meat product (fuet). Because these systems offer various possibilities, this study has compared their effect on the nutritional quality and sensory acceptability of fuets and their behaviour with regard to technological properties and microbiological and oxidative stability during 30 days of chilled storage. This strategy allowed products with an improved fatty acid profile and a 12-fold decrease of the polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) n-6/n-3 ratio, as compared to the control samples. Irrespective of the structuring method used as animal fat replacer, reformulated samples showed a good oxidative status during chilled storage. In general, no differences that depended on the use of oleogel or emulsion gel were observed in the technological properties and microbiological status, so the choice of one or the other would be conditioned by other factors than the characteristics that the product develops. However, further studies are needed to improve the sensory attributes of the reformulated samples.

Delivery Systems for Hydroxytyrosol Supplementation: State of the Art

This review aims to highlight the benefits and limitations of the main colloid-based available delivery systems for hydroxytyrosol. Hydroxytyrosol is a phenolic compound with clear biological activities for human wellness. Olive fruits, leaves and extra-virgin oil are the main food sources of hydroxytyrosol. Moreover, olive oil mill wastewaters are considered a potential source to obtain hydroxytyrosol to use in the food industry. However, recovered hydroxytyrosol needs adequate formulations and delivery systems to increase its chemical stability and bioavailability. Therefore, the application of hydroxytyrosol delivery systems in food sector is still a fascinating challenge. Principal delivery systems are based on the use of colloids, polymers able to perform gelling, thickening and stabilizing functions in various industrial sectors, including food manufacturing. Here, we review the recipes for the available hydroxytyrosol systems and their relative production methods, as well as aspects relative to system characteristics and hydroxytyrosol effectiveness.

Influence of gelation on the retention of purple cactus pear extract in microencapsulated double emulsions

A purple cactus pear (Opuntia ficus-indica) extract (CP) was encapsulated in double emulsions (DE) gelled with gelatin (DE-CP-G) and with gelatin and transglutaminase (DE-CP-GT), as well as in a DE with a liquid external aqueous phase (DE-CP), in order to study the retention of betanin as colorant agent. Both gelled DEs showed a predominantly elastic behavior, in contrast with DE-CP. The degradation rate constant of betanin was significantly higher in DE-CP-GT (90.2 x 10⁻³ days^-1) than in DE-CP-G (11.0 x 10⁻³ days^-1) and DE-CP (14.6 x 10⁻³ days^-1) during cold-storage (4 °C). A shift towards yellow color was found in all the systems during cold-storage (4 °C) and after thermal treatment (70°C/30 min), especially in DE-CP-GT, denoting a higher degradation of betanin. Betalamic acid, cyclo-Dopa 5-O-β-glucoside, 17-decarboxy-betanin and neobetanin were identified by UHPLC-MS/MS as degradation products of betanin.