Stress and the immune system in the etiology of anxiety and depression

Adherence to Physical Distancing and Health Beliefs About COVID-19 Among Patients With Cancer

BACKGROUND

This study aimed to validate questionnaires on adherence to physical distancing and health beliefs about coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) among patients with cancer and explore their interaction with depression or viral anxiety among them.

METHODS

Through an online survey, data from 154 cancer patients (female: 82.5%, breast cancer: 66.2%, current cancer treatment, presence: 65.6%) were collected from March to June 2022. The survey gathered responses to questionnaires on adherence to physical distancing, health beliefs about COVID-19, perceived social norms, Stress and Anxiety to Viral Epidemics-6 items, and Patient Health Questionnaire-2. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) for construct validity and structural equation model (SEM) were performed.

RESULTS

The CFA showed a good model fit for adherence to physical distancing (comparative fit index [CFI] = 1.000, Tucker-Lewis index [TLI] = 0.930, root-mean-square-error of approximation [RMSEA] = 0.000, and standardized root-mean-square residual [SRMR] = 0.050) and a satisfactory model fit for health beliefs about COVID-19 (CFI = 0.978, TLI = 0.971, RMSEA = 0.061, and SRMR = 0.089). Through SEM, we found that personal injunctive norms were the main mediators linking health beliefs with physical distancing in patients with cancer. Depression also mediated the effects of viral anxiety and perceived severity on physical distancing (χ² = 20.073, df = 15, P = 0.169; CFI = 0.984; RMSEA = 0.047).

CONCLUSION

The questionnaires are reliable and valid. Patients with cancer may be able to adhere to physical distancing by addressing perceived severity, viral anxiety, perceived benefits, self-efficacy, perceived barriers, as well as personal injunctive norms.

Stress-induced red nucleus attenuation induces anxiety-like behavior and lymph node CCL5 secretion

Previous studies have speculated that brain activity directly controls immune responses in lymphoid organs. However, the upstream brain regions that control lymphoid organs and how they interface with lymphoid organs to produce stress-induced anxiety-like behavior remain elusive. Using stressed human participants and rat models, we show that CCL5 levels are increased in stressed individuals compared to controls. Stress-inducible CCL5 is mainly produced from cervical lymph nodes (CLN). Retrograde tracing from CLN identifies glutamatergic neurons in the red nucleus (RN), the activities of which are tightly correlated with CCL5 levels and anxiety-like behavior in male rats. Ablation or chemogenetic inhibition of RN glutamatergic neurons increases anxiety levels and CCL5 expression in the serum and CLNs, whereas pharmacogenetic activation of these neurons reduces anxiety levels and CCL5 synthesis after restraint stress exposure. Chemogenetic inhibition of the projection from primary motor cortex to RN elicits anxiety-like behavior and CCL5 synthesis. This brain-lymph node axis provides insights into lymph node tissue as a stress-responsive endocrine organ.

Psychological Reactions during and after a Lockdown: Self-Efficacy as a Protective Factor of Mental Health

The aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of home confinement/social isolation (i.e., lockdown), imposed to reduce large-scale spread of a disease in the population, on the mental health of individuals. Through an online survey during the lockdown (DL) related to COVID-19 (1085 respondents, 627 females, agerange: 18-82) (Italy, 23 April-2 May 2020), we revealed that situational factors, i.e., the presence of children at home and female gender, and psychological factors, i.e., a greater sense of isolation, lower perception of safety outside the home and higher trait anxiety, predicted higher levels of state anxiety (R2 = 0.58). The same factors, but with young age instead of the presence of children, predicted higher levels of perceived stress (R2 = 0.63). Then, these data were compared with those collected after the lockdown (AL) (174 respondents, 128 females, agerange: 19-78) (Italy, 1 July-31 October 2021). The results showed that along with a reduced sense of isolation (DL = 2.90 vs. AL = 2.10) and an increased perception of safety outside the home (DL = 2.63 vs. AL = 3.05), a reduction in state anxiety (DL = 45.76 vs. AL= 40.88) and stress appeared (DL = 18.84 vs. AL = 17.63). However, the situation was better for men than for women. Perceived self-efficacy emerged as a protective factor for mental health (R2range: 0.03-0.27). The results are discussed in light of the evidence on the effects of lockdown on individuals worldwide. These results may be used to make more educated decisions on targeted help for individuals who may be most adversely affected by the adoption of lockdowns in the future.

Reducing preoperative anxiety in parents of surgical patients

Aims and objectives

To investigate preoperative anxiety in parents of paediatric surgical patients, testing whether the provision of information (using video and story books) regarding the surgical process can impact on reducing anxiety. Analyse if any personal factors influence the reduction of anxiety.

Background

Attending a surgical theatre generates anxiety, especially in the case of children. The effect of different preoperative intervention procedures in children that attempt to reduce their anxiety level have been studied a great deal. However, although their parents also suffer high levels of anxiety, potential intervention to reduce their levels has not received the same attention.

Study design

Randomised Clinical trial.

Methods

One hundred and twenty-five parents of children (8-12 y.o.) undergoing surgery in a public hospital were randomly assigned to the control group CG (34 individuals) or one of the 3 experimental groups EG (91). In this Randomised Controlled Study, children and parents of the experimental groups were provided with a story book, a video with additional information of nursing, or both. Prior to the surgical intervention, the State Anxiety, S-A, and Trait Anxiety, T-A, of the parents and children were measured using the STAI and STAIC questionnaires respectively. Data collection was carried out for 12 months starting in October 2016.

Results

Parents' S-A in the control group was higher than in the experimental groups. A linear model explains the parents' S-A using as regressors: children S-A, age and T-A of the parents, and children age.

Conclusions

Providing information about the surgical process (through stories or videos) to which a child is going to be subjected can reduce the anxiety of the parents.

Relevance to clinical practice

Given their close connection to the patient and the potential effects on the children of their psychological situation, healthcare professionals should consider paying greater attention to communicating with the parents.

Association of anxiety, age and oral health-related quality of life with periodontitis: A case-control study

OBJECTIVE

This case-control study evaluated the association of sociodemographic profile, mental health disorders and oral health-related quality of life (OHRQoL) with periodontitis.

METHODS

Patients with periodontitis (PP, n = 50) and control patients (CP, n = 50) were allocated into 2 groups after a complete periodontal examination. Data collection included age, sex, marital status, education and application of 2 questionnaires: Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale for the diagnosis of anxiety/depression and Impact Profile on Oral Health (OHIP-14) for classification of well-being. An adjusted multiple binary logistic regression analysis was performed to assess the effect of all studied covariates on periodontitis.

RESULTS

The results show that mean clinical attachment loss and periodontal probing depth were 5.92 (SD = 0.42) and 5.46 (SD = 0.78) in PP and 0.00 (SD = 0.00) and 2.85 (SD = 0.23) in CP, respectively (p < 0.001). The regression analysis demonstrated a significant effect on periodontitis for age (OR = 1.13; p < 0.0001; 95% CI: 1.07-1.20), with the PP having more people aged 50 years or older than CP, anxiety (OR = 1.25; p = 0.020; 95% CI: 1.04-1.50) and OHIP-14 (OR = 1.17; p < 0.0001; 95% CI: 1.08-1.226).

CONCLUSIONS

The findings showed a positive association between anxiety, OHRQoL and age with periodontitis.

Psychosocial stress and cancer risk: a narrative review

BACKGROUND

It is unclear which psychological factors (stressors, emotional correlates, and psychophysiological markers) induce cancer risk. This currently limits the potential for prevention strategies.

PURPOSE

The aim of this review is to bring forth evidence of stress as a determinant of cancer risk from a public health perspective, written for a broad public of practitioners and scientists.

METHODS

Based on a semisystematic literature search, the impact of different aspects/types of stress and the potential physiological and behavioral pathways are summarized, while highlighting further research, public health and clinical implications.

RESULTS

Between 2007 and 2020, 65 case-control or cohort studies have been identified. Apart from overall cancer ( N = 24), 12 cancer types have been associated with psychological stress with most for breast ( N = 21), colorectal ( N = 11) and lung/prostate/pancreas cancer ( N = 8 each). Although the evidence regarding the mechanisms is still scarce, cancer development in relation to stress might be due to interacting and combined effects of different stress(or) types, but such interaction has not really been tested yet. The path from stress towards cancer incidence consists of a biological pathway with endocrinology and immunology as well as stress-induced behavioral pathways, including smoking, alcoholism, sleep disruption, an unhealthy diet, and low physical activity together with the related phenomenon of obesity.

CONCLUSION

Not only the stress but also the stress-induced lifestyle should be targeted for cancer prevention and treatment. Future research should include a more diverse spectrum of cancer types (not only hormonal related like breast cancer) and of stress measures while also considering behavioral covariates.

Experiencing social exclusion changes gut microbiota composition

Gut microbiota is suggested to regulate the host's mental health via the gut-brain axis. In this study, we investigated the relationship between the microbiome and psychological pain due to social exclusion. Adult individuals with (n = 14) and without (n = 25) social exclusion experience were assessed for the psychological status using self-reported questionnaires: Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI), Beck Depression Inventory, and the UCLA Loneliness Scale. The gut microbiota was analyzed by 16 S rRNA gene sequencing and bioinformatics. The exclusion group had a 1.70-fold higher total BAI score and 2.16-fold higher levels of anxiety-related physical symptoms (p < 0.05). The gut microbial profiles also differed between the two groups. The exclusion group showed higher probability of having Prevotella-enriched microbiome (odds ratio, 2.29; 95% confidence interval, 1.65-2.75; p < 0.05), a significantly reduced Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes ratio, and decreased abundance of Faecalibacterium spp. (p < 0.05) which was associated with the duration and intensity of social exclusion (p < 0.05). Our results indicate that the psychological pain due to social exclusion is correlated with the gut microbiota composition, suggesting that targeting social exclusion-related microorganisms can be a new approach to solving psychological problems and related social issues.

The suppression of spontaneous face touch and resulting consequences on memory performance of high and low self-touching individuals

Spontaneous touching of one's own face (sFST) is an everyday behavior that occurs primarily in cognitively and emotionally demanding situations, regardless of a persons’ age or gender. Recently, sFST have sparked scientific interest since they are associated with self-inoculation and transmission of respiratory diseases. Several studies addressed the need to reduce sFST behaviors without discussing the underlying functions of this spontaneous behavior. In addition, the question of why this behavior occurs very frequently in some individuals (high self-touching individuals, HT) but less frequently in others (low self-touching individuals, LT) has not yet been addressed. For the first time, we distinguished between HT and LT and investigated the behavioral consequences of sFST suppression in these two groups. For this purpose, we examined performance outcomes of 49 participants depending on sFST behaviors during a haptic working memory task. In addition, we assessed personality traits of HT and LT using the Freiburg Personality Inventory (FPI-R). The results of our study reveal that suppressing sFST in HT is negatively related to memory performance outcomes. Moreover, HT show tendencies to differ from LT in certain personality traits. Our results highlight the relevance of distinguishing between HT and LT in future studies of sFST.

Examining the Use of Antidepressants for Adolescents with Depression/Anxiety Who Regularly Use Cannabis: A Narrative Review

Depression and anxiety disorders are two of the most common and growing mental health concerns in adolescents. Consequently, antidepressant medication (AD) use has increased widely during the last decades. Several classes of antidepressants are used mainly to treat depression, anxiety, and obsessive-compulsive disorders by targeting relevant brain neurochemical pathways. Almost all randomized clinical trials of antidepressants examined patients with no concomitant medications or drugs. This does not address the expected course of therapy and outcome in cannabis users. Cannabis is the most commonly used illicit substance globally. Substantial changes in its regulation are recently taking place. Many countries and US states are becoming more permissive towards its medical and recreational use. The psychological and physiological effects of cannabis (mainly of its major components, tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD)) have been extensively characterized. Cannabis use can be a risk factor for depressive and anxiety symptoms, but some constituents or mixtures may have antidepressant and/or anxiolytic potential. The aim of this literature review is to explore whether simultaneous use of AD and cannabis in adolescence can affect AD treatment outcomes. Based on the current literature, it is reasonable to assume that antidepressants are less effective for adolescents with depression/anxiety who frequently use cannabis. The mechanisms of action of antidepressants and cannabis point to several similarities and conjunctions that merit future investigation regarding the potential effectiveness of antidepressants among adolescents who consume cannabis regularly.

Increased Risk of Recurrence of Non-Muscle Invasive Bladder Cancer Associated With Psychological Distress: A Prospective Cohort Study

OBJECTIVE

The primary aim was to evaluate the influence of depressive and anxiety symptoms on the 1-year recurrence rate of non-muscle invasive bladder cancer (NMIBC) patients. The secondary aim was to examine the risk factors leading to psychological distress.

METHODS

A total of 104 NMIBC patients were enrolled for interviews, and the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS) questionnaire survey was administered 1 month after their operation. Their cystoscopy results were followed up. The risk factors affecting their 1-year recurrence rate were evaluated through univariate analysis, Cox regression and Kaplan-Meier analysis. The risk factors causing depressive and anxiety symptoms were evaluated through univariate analysis and logistic regression.

RESULTS

In addition to American Urological Association risk stratification, depressive symptoms were another independent risk factor for recurrence in NMIBC patients (HR: 2.493, 95% CI: 1.048-5.930, p=0.039), and the increase in the recurrence rate was highly significant in intermediate-risk patients (HR: 8.496, 95% CI: 2.178-33.138, p=0.019). Anxiety symptoms were not an independent risk factor for recurrence (HR: 1.655, 95% CI: 0.714-3.837, p=0.240). We also observed that the burden of medical expenses of NMIBC on the family was an independent risk factor for depressive symptoms (p=0.029) and anxiety symptoms (p=0.048); chronic pain was an independent risk factor for anxiety symptoms (OR: 3.447, 95% CI: 1.182-10.052, p=0.023).

CONCLUSION

Depression symptoms are an independent risk factor for recurrence in NMIBC patients. Moreover, the burden of medical expenses on the family is an independent risk factor for depressive and anxiety symptoms in NMIBC patients. Additionally, chronic pain is a risk factor for anxiety symptoms in NMIBC patients. This study provided a theoretical foundation for clinical oncologists to pay more attention to the mental health of NMIBC patients.

The correlation between mental health status, sleep quality, and inflammatory markers, virus negative conversion time among patients confirmed with 2019-nCoV during the COVID-19 outbreak in China: An observational study

The 2019 coronavirus disease (COVID-19) has spread to the whole world. Psychological and sleep problems among confirmed patients have drawn extensive attention which may be highly related to immune function and inflammatory responses of people. The aim of this study is to examine the correlation of mental health status, sleep quality, and inflammatory markers, virus negative conversion time (NCT) among confirmed patients during the COVID-19 outbreak.A cross-sectional survey was conducted in this study. Data from 66 patients assessed with demographic information, anxious symptom, depressive symptom, stress, and sleep quality were collected using a smartphone-based questionnaire platform and then clinical characteristics and laboratory indicators were collected using case review.Nearly 30% of the participants reported depression, anxiety, perceived pressure, and poor sleep quality. Compared with the group without depression, neutrophil count, and ratio of neutrophil count to lymphocyte count (NLR) in the depression disorder group were increased (P = .028, 0.043). There was also a significant difference in NLR and NCT between the anxiety group and the non-anxiety group (P = .021, .024). Similarly, compared with the good sleep quality group, NLR in the poor sleep quality group was increased (P = .011). Correlation analysis indicated that Self-Rating Depression Scale score was positively related to neutrophil count and NLR (r = 0.366, 0.330, P = .016, .031). The total score of Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI) was negatively related to lymphocyte count (r = -0.317, P = .049), and the sleep disturbance as 1 of the 7 dimensions of PSQI scale was positively correlated with NCT and NLR (r = 0.370, 0.340, P = .020, .034).In our study, confirmed patients were prone to have psychological and sleep problems. The level of inflammation in patients with psychological and sleep problems was higher than that in patients without corresponding problems. The inflammatory level increased with the increase of Self-Rating Depression Scale score, and the lymphocyte count decreased with the increase of the PSQI score. NCT was prolonged in the anxiety group and sleep disturbance was positively correlated with NCT.

The interaction of the circadian and immune system: Desynchrony as a pathological outcome to traumatic brain injury

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a complex and costly worldwide phenomenon that can lead to many negative health outcomes including disrupted circadian function. There is a bidirectional relationship between the immune system and the circadian system, with mammalian coordination of physiological activities being controlled by the primary circadian pacemaker in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) of the hypothalamus. The SCN receives light information from the external environment and in turn synchronizes rhythms throughout the brain and body. The SCN is capable of endogenous self-sustained oscillatory activity through an intricate clock gene negative feedback loop. Following TBI, the response of the immune system can become prolonged and pathophysiological. This detrimental response not only occurs in the brain, but also within the periphery, where a leaky blood brain barrier can permit further infiltration of immune and inflammatory factors. The prolonged and pathological immune response that follows TBI can have deleterious effects on clock gene cycling and circadian function not only in the SCN, but also in other rhythmic areas throughout the body. This could bring about a state of circadian desynchrony where different rhythmic structures are no longer working together to promote optimal physiological function. There are many parallels between the negative symptomology associated with circadian desynchrony and TBI. This review discusses the significant contributions of an immune-disrupted circadian system on the negative symptomology following TBI. The implications of TBI symptomology as a disorder of circadian desynchrony are discussed.

Targeting the renin angiotensin system for the treatment of anxiety and depression

Emotional disorders like anxiety and depression are responsible for considerable morbidity and mortality all over the world. Several antidepressant and anxiolytic medications are available for the treatment of anxiety and depression. However, a significant number of patients either do not respond to these medications or respond inadequately. Hence, there is a need to identify novel targets for the treatment of anxiety and depression. In this review we focus on the renin angiotensin system (RAS) as a potential target for the treatment of these disorders. We review work that has evaluated the effects of various compounds targeting the RAS on anxiety- and depression-like behaviors. Further, we suggest future work that must be carried out to fully exploit the RAS for the treatment of anxiety and depression. The RAS provides an attractive target for both the identification of novel anxiolytic and antidepressant medications and/or for enhancing the efficacy of currently available medications used for the treatment of anxiety and depression.

The Psychological Consequences of the COVID-19 on Residents and Staff in Nursing Homes

In this commentary, we overview the existing research on psychological consequences caused by COVID-19 for both residents and staff in the nursing homes. We identify loneliness and emotional anxiety as main psychological consequences for nursing home residents, whereas uncertainty, hopelessness, work overload, and role conflicts are the most salient psychological challenges for the staff in the nursing homes during the pandemic. We then summarize the existing strategies and interventions responsive to the above challenges. We suggest that this overview may help nursing home managers understand what are the key psychological challenges and how to deal with them during a crisis period. Finally, we also encourage future research to pay more attention to exploring interventions specifically designed for vulnerable older people, understanding the role of the nursing home leader team in managing emotional and ethical challenges in organizations, and developing community-wide collaboration with multiple external stakeholders.

Inflammation and Depression: A Nervous Plea for Psychiatry to Not Become Immune to Interpretation

The possibility that inflammation plays a causal role in major depression is an important claim in the emerging field of immunopsychiatry and has generated hope for new treatments. The aims of the present review are first to provide some historical background and to consider the evidence in favor of the claim that inflammation is causally involved in major depression. The second part discusses some of the possibilities allowed for by the use of broad ‘umbrella’ concepts, such as inflammation and stress, in terms of proposing new working hypotheses and potential mechanisms. The third part reviews proposed biomarkers of inflammation and depression and the final part addresses how elements discussed in the preceding sections are used in immunopsychiatry. The ‘umbrella’ concepts of inflammation and stress, as well as insufficiently-met criteria based inferences and reverse inferences are being used to some extent in immunopsychiatry. The field is therefore encouraged to specify concepts and constructs, as well as to consider potential alternative interpretations and explanations for findings obtained. The hope is that pointing out some of the potential problems will allow for a clearer picture of immunopsychiatry’s current strengths and limitations and help the field mature.

Chronic stress exacerbates neuropathic pain via the integration of stress-affect-related information with nociceptive information in the central nucleus of the amygdala

Exacerbation of pain by chronic stress and comorbidity of pain with stress-related psychiatric disorders, including anxiety and depression, represent significant clinical challenges. However, the underlying mechanisms still remain unclear. Here, we investigated whether chronic forced swim stress (CFSS)-induced exacerbation of neuropathic pain is mediated by the integration of stress-affect-related information with nociceptive information in the central nucleus of the amygdala (CeA). We first demonstrated that CFSS indeed produces both depressive-like behaviors and exacerbation of spared nerve injury (SNI)-induced mechanical allodynia in rats. Moreover, we revealed that CFSS induces both sensitization of basolateral amygdala (BLA) neurons and augmentation of long-term potentiation (LTP) at the BLA-CeA synapse and meanwhile, exaggerates both SNI-induced sensitization of CeA neurons and LTP at the parabrachial (PB)-CeA synapse. In addition, we discovered that CFSS elevates SNI-induced functional up-regulation of GluN2B-containing NMDA (GluN2B-NMDA) receptors in the CeA, which is proved to be necessary for CFSS-induced augmentation of LTP at the PB-CeA synapse and exacerbation of pain hypersensitivity in SNI rats. Suppression of CFSS-elicited depressive-like behaviors by antidepressants imipramine or ifenprodil inhibits the CFSS-induced exacerbation of neuropathic pain. Collectively, our findings suggest that CFSS potentiates synaptic efficiency of the BLA-CeA pathway, leading to the activation of GluN2B-NMDA receptors and sensitization of CeA neurons, which subsequently facilitate pain-related synaptic plasticity of the PB-CeA pathway, thereby exacerbating SNI-induced neuropathic pain. We conclude that chronic stress exacerbates neuropathic pain via the integration of stress-affect-related information with nociceptive information in the CeA.

Chronic Psychological Stress Was Not Ameliorated by Omega-3 Eicosapentaenoic Acid (EPA)

Background: Chronic psychological stress and mental health disorders are endemic in Western culture where population dietary insufficiencies of omega-3 fatty acids (n-3FA) from seafood have been observed. Objective: This study was designed to test for a causal relationship between one of the most active components of fish oil, eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), and chronic psychological stress. Method: A randomized double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial with parallel-assignment to two groups was designed (Trial Id: ACTRN12610000404022). The interventions were four EPA-rich fish oil capsules per day, delivering 2.2 g/d EPA (and 0.44 g/d DHA), or identical placebo (low-phenolic olive oil capsules with 5% fish oil to aid blinding). The primary outcome was the between-group difference on the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS-10) after 12 weeks supplementation. An a priori power analysis determined that group sizes of 43 would provide 80% power to detect a significant between-group difference of 12.5%, at α = 0.05. Ninety community members (64 females, 26 males) reporting chronic work stress were recruited via public advertising in northern NSW, Australia. Results: At baseline the omega-3 index (EPA + DHA as % to total fatty acids in red blood cell membranes) was 5.2% in both groups (SD = 1.6% control group; 1.8% active group). After supplementation this remained stable at 5.3% (SD = 1.6%) for the control group but increased to 8.9% (SD = 1.5%) for the active group, demonstrating successful incorporation of EPA into cells. Intention-to-treat (ITT) analysis found no significant between-group differences in PSS outcome scores post-intervention (b = 1.21, p = 0.30) after adjusting for sex (b = 2.36, p = 0.079), baseline PSS (b = 0.42, p = 0.001) and baseline logEPA [b = 1.41, p = 0.185; F(3, 86) = 8.47, p < 0.01, n = 89, R-square = 0.243]. Discussion: Treatment increased cell membrane EPA but, contrary to the hypothesis, there was no effect on perceived stress. Limitations included an imbalance of gender in groups after randomization (68% of the males were in the placebo group). While we found no significant interaction between sex and group on the outcome after adjusting for baseline PSS, larger studies with groups stratified for gender may be required to further confirm these findings. Conclusion: This study demonstrated that 2. 2 g/day of EPA for 12 weeks did not reduce chronic psychological stress.

Effects of a chronic stress treatment on vaccinal response in lambs

Farming systems can expose animals to chronic mild stress which is known to induce negative affective state. Affective state in animals, as in humans, can be assessed through behavioral cues. This study aimed to describe the effect of a chronic mild stress, known to induce a negative affective state, on sheep health through their response to vaccination. The study used 15 lambs subjected to a model of chronic mild stress for 15 weeks and 15 lambs reared under conventional farming as a control group. After 7 weeks of stressful treatment, the lambs were individually exposed to a judgment bias test to assess a putative stress-induced 'pessimism.' After 15 weeks of stressful treatment, antibody immune response was measured after an injection of a live vaccine challenge (Chlamydia abortus attenuated vaccine strain 1B). Stressed lambs displayed a pessimistic-like perception in the judgment bias test, revealing a negative affective state. Stressed and control animals showed different immunological reactions to vaccine challenge: stressed sheep had lower hemoglobin concentrations and higher platelet, granulocyte and acute-phase protein concentrations. Antibody response induced by the vaccine strain was not different between stressed and control sheep. Our results suggest that negative affective state induced by chronic stress treatment may induce a stronger inflammatory response to vaccine challenge in sheep. Improvement of animal health may be achieved through consideration of stressors that may affect the emotional and immunological state of sheep.

Serum Cytokine Levels in Major Depressive Disorder and Its Role in Antidepressant Response

OBJECTIVE

Cytokines have been reported to have key roles in major depressive disorder (MDD). However, much less is known about cytokines in MDD and antidepressant treatment due to the diversity of cytokines and the heterogeneity of depression. We investigated the levels of cytokines in patients with MDD compared with healthy subjects and their associations with antidepressant response.

METHODS

We investigated the changes of several cytokines (eotaxin, sCD40L, IL-8, MCP-1alpha, TNF-alpha, INF-gamma and MIP-1alpha) by Luminex assay in 66 patients with MDD and 22 healthy controls. The antidepressant response was assessed by 17-item Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression.

RESULTS

We found the levels of sCD40L (p=0.001), IL-8 (p=0.004) and MCP-1 (p=0.03) of healthy controls were significantly higher than those of depressive patients. However, the level of eotaxin and TNF-alpha were not associated with MDD. In addition, we found the level of MCP-1 was significantly changed after antidepressant treatment (p=0.01).

CONCLUSION

These findings suggest the roles of cytokines in MDD are complex, and could vary according to the individual characteristics of each patient. Further studies regarding the relationship between cytokines and MDD will be required.

Inhibition of Mammary Cancer Progression in Fetal Alcohol Exposed Rats by β-Endorphin Neurons

BACKGROUND

Fetal alcohol exposure (FAE) increases the susceptibility to carcinogen-induced mammary cancer progression in rodent models. FAE also decreases β-endorphin (β-EP) level and causes hyperstress response, which leads to inhibition of immune function against cancer. Previous studies have shown that injection of nanosphere-attached dibutyryl cyclic adenosine monophosphate (dbcAMP) into the third ventricle increases the number of β-EP neurons in the hypothalamus. In this study, we assessed the therapeutic potential of stress regulation using methods to increase hypothalamic levels of β-EP, a neuropeptide that inhibits stress axis activity, in treatment of carcinogen-induced mammary cancer in fetal alcohol exposed rats.

METHODS

Fetal alcohol exposed and control Sprague Dawley rats were given a dose of N-Nitroso-N-methylurea (MNU) at postnatal day 50 to induce mammary cancer growth. Upon detection of mammary tumors, the animals were either transplanted with β-EP neurons or injected with dbcAMP-delivering nanospheres into the hypothalamus to increase β-EP peptide production. Spleen cytokines were detected using reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction assays. Metastasis study was done by injecting mammary cancer cells MADB106 into jugular vein of β-EP-activated or control fetal alcohol exposed animals.

RESULTS

Both transplantation of β-EP neurons and injection of dbcAMP-delivering nanospheres inhibited MNU-induced mammary cancer growth in control rats, and reversed the effect of FAE on the susceptibility to mammary cancer. Similar to the previously reported immune-enhancing and stress-suppressive effects of β-EP transplantation, injection of dbcAMP-delivering nanospheres increased the levels of interferon-γ and granzyme B and decreased the levels of epinephrine and norepinephrine in fetal alcohol exposed rats. Mammary cancer cell metastasis study also showed that FAE increased incidence of lung tumor retention, while β-EP transplantation inhibited lung tumor growth in both normal and fetal alcohol exposed rats.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results suggest that increase of β-EP production in the hypothalamus may serve as a potential therapeutic strategy for treating the cancer growth in patients with chronic stress and compromised immune function, such as the patients with FAE.

Stress and Cancer in Dogs: Comparison Between a Population of Dogs Diagnosed with Cancer and a Control Population - A Pilot Study

It is widely accepted that psychological stress and mental illness can compromise the function of the immune system. Clinical and epidemiological studies on humans recognized that specific psychosocial factors, such as stress, chronic depression and lack of social support are risk factors for the development and progression of cancer. Unfortunately, most of the animals studies on this subject are based on laboratory tests performed on mice. This retrospective cohort study aims to analyze the relation between stress and tumor in pet dogs, by evaluating and comparing the stress level in two groups of 69 dogs each, balanced for sex and age: the oncologic group consists of dogs diagnosed with cancer and the control group consists of healthy dogs. Our results show that, before the cancer diagnosis, more dogs in the oncologic group faced changes in their household and routine as opposed to the control group (p<0.05). More dogs of the oncologic group than the control group also showed signs of stress and anxiety, before the cancer diagnosis (p<0.05). As reported by their owners, these included attention seeking, hiding without a specific reason, following the owner around the house, hyper-vigilance, fear of fireworks and gunshots, biting, aggression towards other dogs, licking and chewing excessively parts of their body. Our results are aligned with the evidence from human research, indicating that dogs with cancer are significantly more likely to have shown signs of stress compared to the control dogs during their life.

An Integrative Approach to Depression: Part 1—Etiology

This two-part series presents an integrative model for understanding and treating depression, encompassing the biological, psychological, social, and spiritual levels of the human being. Major depressive disorder may be seen as a dysregulated form of an adaptive response. Theories regarding the adaptive functions of depression drawn from psychology, evolutionary biology, ethology, neuroendocrinology, dream research, the philosophies of naturopathy and homeopathy, and the spiritual traditions of the Native Americans and other cultures are reviewed and synthesized. This model provides the basis for the rational application of a variety of complementary and conventional therapies.

EMDR Therapy in Psycho-Oncology: A Bridge Between Mind and Body

Of the many life-threatening illnesses, cancer can be one of the most traumatic and distressful. It impacts the individual’s sense of identity and interferes with essential features intrinsic to the person’s uniqueness and self-awareness. It attacks patients’ physical integrity, bringing death into the foreground and can directly threaten their sense of belonging to micro and macro social systems. This article stresses the importance of understanding that psychological pain and physical suffering are closely interconnected and, within the context of psycho-oncology, proposes a clinical perspective based on the eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) approach, in which the cancer event is nested in the history of life of the patient. EMDR is a therapeutic approach guided by the adaptive information processing (AIP) model. The AIP model postulates that psychopathology results when unprocessed experiences are stored in their own neural network, incapable of connecting with other more adaptive networks. In this perspective, the core of the clinical suffering is hypothesized as embedded in these dysfunctionally suspended memories. In line with recent scientific literature presented in this article, it appears that previous and cancer-related traumas maintain a vicious cycle between psychological and physical health, and the aim of EMDR therapy is to break this cycle. Recent scientific research has hypothesized that EMDR therapy is effective at both the psychological and physical levels. However, because of the consistent heterogeneity of the research design, the findings reported in this article highlight the need for further controlled research for more comprehensive examination.

Depression, Antidepressant Use, and Postmenopausal Breast Cancer Risk

BACKGROUND

Whether depression and antidepressant (AD) use might influence breast cancer risk is unclear, and these exposures have not been evaluated together in a single, prospective cohort study of breast cancer risk.

METHODS

Among 71,439 postmenopausal women in the Women's Health Initiative Observational Study (WHI-OS), we estimated multivariable-adjusted HRs for the independent and joint effects of depressive symptoms and AD use on breast cancer risk using Cox proportional hazards regression.

RESULTS

When analyzed separately, neither depressive symptoms nor AD use at baseline were associated with a significantly increased risk of total breast cancer (HR = 0.96, 95% CI, 0.85-1.08; HR = 1.04, 95% CI, 0.92-1.20, respectively) or invasive breast cancer (HR = 0.98, 95% CI, 0.86-1.12; HR = 1.00, 95% CI, 0.86-1.16, respectively). Current AD use was associated with a borderline-significant increase of in situ breast cancer (HR = 1.30, 95% CI, 0.99-1.75) after adjustment for depressive symptoms; however, this relationship was attenuated after adjustment for mammographic screening (HR = 1.08, 95% CI, 0.76-1.51). No significant variation in total breast cancer risk was observed when the separate and joint effects of depressive symptoms and AD use were explored (P for interaction = 0.14).

CONCLUSION

We found no evidence that either depression or AD use influences breast cancer risk. An elevated risk of in situ disease among AD users could not be ruled out, though is likely due to increased screening in this subgroup.

IMPACT

Given the high prevalence of these exposures, these results may provide reassurance to the millions of women who are depressed and/or use ADs each year.

Early post-stressor intervention with minocycline, a second-generation tetracycline, attenuates post-traumatic stress response in an animal model of PTSD

We assessed the effects of minocycline, a tetracycline with anti-inflammatory, anti-apoptotic and neuroprotective capacities, in an animal model of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Rats were exposed to psychogenic stress and treated 1h later with minocycline or saline. Behavioral measures included the elevated plus-maze (EPM) and acoustic startle response (ASR) 7 days post stress-exposure. One day after behavioral testing, animals were exposed to a trauma cue and freezing response was assessed. Local levels of cytokines interleukin-1 (IL-1), interleukin-6 (IL-6) and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) in the hippocampus, frontal cortex (FC) and hypothalamus were then examined. Minocycline attenuated anxious-like behaviors in stress-exposed rats. In addition, decreased levels of cytokines were measured in exposed rats treated with minocycline compared to their counterparts treated with saline. This study suggests a potential use of minocycline in preventing physiological and behavioral alternations resulting from acute exposure to psychological stress. As this is the first study to report beneficial outcomes for minocycline treatment in an animal model of PTSD, further investigations of the use of minocycline in stress-related conditions with emphasis on PTSD is needed.

Evaluation of antidepressant properties of the p38 MAP kinase inhibitor losmapimod (GW856553) in Major Depressive Disorder: Results from two randomised, placebo-controlled, double-blind, multicentre studies using a Bayesian approach

Pro-inflammatory cytokines (PICs) may play important pathophysiological roles in some forms of Major Depressive Disorder (MDD). The p38 MAPK inhibitor losmapimod (GW856553) attenuates the pro-inflammatory response in humans by reducing PIC production. Losmapimod (7.5 mg BD) was administered for 6 weeks in two randomised, placebo-controlled trials in subjects with MDD enriched with symptoms of loss of energy/interest and psychomotor retardation (Studies 574 and 009). Primary efficacy endpoints were the Bech 6-item depression subscale of the HAMD-17 (the 'Bech,') for Study 009; and the Bech, Inventory of Depressive Symptomatology-Clinician Rated (IDS-C), HAMD-17, and Quick Inventory of Depressive Symptomatology (self-rated) (QIDS-SR) for Study 574. Key cytokine biomarker levels were also measured. Study 574 (n=24) was terminated prematurely in light of emerging data from an internal study in rheumatoid arthritis. Efficacy results available at termination favoured losmapimod (Bech, 6 weeks: endpoint drug vs. placebo difference = -4.10; 95% CI, -7.36, -0.83; p=0.017). A subsequent study, Study 009 (n=128), designed using a Bayesian approach based on a prior derived from Study 574, showed no advantage for losmapimod (Bech, 6 weeks: endpoint drug vs. placebo difference = 1.11; 95% credible interval, -0.22, 2.50). Biomarker data showed no significant changes. In conclusion 7.5 mg BID losmapimod was not effective in MDD.

Clinical depression, antidepressant use and risk of future cardiovascular disease

Many studies have shown that depression contributes to a higher risk of developing cardiovascular disease (CVD). Use of antidepressants and its association with CVD development has also been investigated previously but the results have been conflicting. Further, depression and use of antidepressants have been more widely studied in relation to coronary heart disease rather than stroke. A population-based cohort study consisting of 36,654 Swedish elderly twins was conducted with a follow-up of maximum 4 years. Information on exposures, outcomes and covariates were collected from the Swedish national patient registers, the Swedish prescribed drug registry and the Swedish twin registry. Depression and antidepressant use were both associated with CVD development. The risk was most pronounced among depressed patients who did not use antidepressants (HR 1. 48, CI 1.10-2.00). When assessing the two main CVD outcomes coronary heart disease and ischemic stroke separately, the predominant association was found for ischemic stroke while it was absent for coronary heart disease. The association between depression and stroke also remained significant when restricting to depression diagnoses occurring at least 10 years before baseline. The study supports that depression is a possible risk factor for development of CVD. Moreover, the hazard rate for CVD outcomes was highest among depressed patients who had not used antidepressants. The association with clinical depression is more marked in relation to stroke and disappears in relation to development of coronary heart disease.

Individual differences in the effects of chronic stress on memory: behavioral and neurochemical correlates of resiliency

Chronic stress has been shown to impair memory, however, the extent to which memory can be impaired is often variable across individuals. Predisposed differences in particular traits, such as anxiety, may reveal underlying neurobiological mechanisms that could be driving individual differences in sensitivity to stress and, thus, stress resiliency. Such pre-morbid characteristics may serve as early indicators of susceptibility to stress. Neuropeptide Y (NPY) and enkephalin (ENK) are neurochemical messengers of interest implicated in modulating anxiety and motivation circuitry; however, little is known about how these neuropeptides interact with stress resiliency and memory. In this experiment, adult male rats were appetitively trained to locate sugar rewards in a motivation-based spatial memory task before undergoing repeated immobilization stress and then being tested for memory retention. Anxiety-related behaviors, among other characteristics, were monitored longitudinally. Results indicated that stressed animals which showed little to no impairments in memory post-stress (i.e., the more stress-resilient individuals) exhibited lower anxiety levels prior to stress when compared to stressed animals that showed large deficits in memory (i.e., the more stress-susceptible individuals). Interestingly, all stressed animals, regardless of memory change, showed reduced body weight gain as well as thymic involution, suggesting that the effects of stress on metabolism and the immune system were dissociated from the effects of stress on higher cognition, and that stress resiliency seems to be domain-specific rather than a global characteristic within an individual. Neurochemical analyses revealed that NPY in the hypothalamus and amygdala and ENK in the nucleus accumbens were modulated differentially between stress-resilient and stress-susceptible individuals, with elevated expression of these neuropeptides fostering anxiolytic and pro-motivation function, thus driving cognitive resiliency in a domain-specific manner. Findings suggest that such neurochemical markers may be novel targets for pharmacological interventions that can serve to prevent or ameliorate the negative effects of stress on memory.

Long-term exposure to unpredictable and uncontrollable aversive events alters fearfulness in sheep

Numerous studies have investigated the emotional effects of various acute, potentially alarming events in animals, but little is known about how an accumulation of emotional experiences affects fearfulness. Fearfulness is a temperament trait that characterizes the propensity of an individual to be frightened by a variety of alarming events. The aim of this study was to investigate a putative alteration of fearfulness in sheep repeatedly exposed to various aversive events. Forty-eight 5-month-old female lambs were used. Over a period of 6 weeks, 24 of them (treated group) were exposed daily to various unpredictable and uncontrollable aversive events related to predatory cues, social context and negative handling that can occur under farming conditions. The other 24 lambs (control group) were housed in standard farming conditions (predictable food distribution and group handling). Fearfulness (behavioural and physiological responses) was assessed before and after the treatment period by subjecting the lambs to three standardized tests: individual exposure to suddenness and then to novelty in a test arena, and group exposure to a motionless human in the home pen. As biomarkers of stress, leukocyte counts, heart rate and cortisol concentrations were measured in the lambs in their home pens. Before the treatment, the emotional responses of the groups did not differ. After the treatment, treated lambs approached the human less often, had less contact with the novel object and vocalized more than controls in individual tests, suggesting that long-term exposure to unpredictable and uncontrollable aversive events increases subsequent fearfulness in sheep. In addition, treated lambs had lower leukocyte counts, heart rate and cortisol levels, pointing to a chronic stress state. These findings suggest that increased fearfulness may be used as a sign of chronic stress in farm animals.

Antiinflammatory activity of melatonin in central nervous system

Melatonin is mainly produced in the mammalian pineal gland during the dark phase. Its secretion from the pineal gland has been classically associated with circadian and circanual rhythm regulation. However, melatonin production is not confined exclusively to the pineal gland, but other tissues including retina, Harderian glands, gut, ovary, testes, bone marrow and lens also produce it. Several studies have shown that melatonin reduces chronic and acute inflammation. The immunomodulatory properties of melatonin are well known; it acts on the immune system by regulating cytokine production of immunocompetent cells. Experimental and clinical data showing that melatonin reduces adhesion molecules and pro-inflammatory cytokines and modifies serum inflammatory parameters. As a consequence, melatonin improves the clinical course of illnesses which have an inflammatory etiology. Moreover, experimental evidence supports its actions as a direct and indirect antioxidant, scavenging free radicals, stimulating antioxidant enzymes, enhancing the activities of other antioxidants or protecting other antioxidant enzymes from oxidative damage. Several encouraging clinical studies suggest that melatonin is a neuroprotective molecule in neurodegenerative disorders where brain oxidative damage has been implicated as a common link. In this review, the authors examine the effect of melatonin on several neurological diseases with inflammatory components, including dementia, Alzheimer disease, Parkinson disease, multiple sclerosis, stroke, and brain ischemia/reperfusion but also in traumatic CNS injuries (traumatic brain and spinal cord injury).

Depression and the cardiovascular system: increasing evidence of a link and therapeutic implications

This review explores the epidemiological evidence for the relationship between depression and cardiovascular disease from a mechanistic standpoint. It is important to examine the biological, behavioral and social mechanisms to improve outcomes for depressed cardiac patients. A number of plausible biobehavioral mechanisms linking depression and cardiovascular disease have been identified. Tricyclic antidepressants have various effects on the cardiovascular system, while selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors are not associated with adverse cardiac effects and should, therefore, be the preferred choice for the treatment of most patients with comorbid depression and cardiovascular disease.

Melatonin as a potential therapeutic agent in psychiatric illness

The aim of this review was to summarize the potential use of melatonin in the treatment of mental disorders, specifically bipolar disorders, depression, and schizophrenia. To date, melatonin has been most commonly used in psychiatry because of its hypnotic, rhythm resynchronizing, and antioxidant actions. Here, we examine other properties of the melatonin including its anti-inflammatory, antinociceptive, anxiolytic, and drug detoxification actions as well as its protective effects against neural loss. The brain is an intricate sensory and motor organ which receives information from both the external and internal environments. It transduces information into complex chemical and electrical signals which are transmitted throughout the central nervous system (CNS) and the organism. The pathogenesis of mental disorders remains ambiguous and neuroinflammation has been proposed as a causative agent. We consider the potential contributions of melatonin as therapeutic agent in CNS and during neuroinflammation in mental disorders.

Immune response in Wistar rats with high and low level of situational anxiety

A large sample of Wistar rats was divided into 2 groups of high-anxiety and low-anxiety animals by the time spent in the open arms of the elevated plus-maze. This selection was based on the criterion of time (low-anxiety animals, not less than 10 sec; high-anxiety animals, not more than 2 sec). Immunization with T-dependent antigen was performed on the day of behavioral testing. The number of rosette-forming cells in high-anxiety rats significantly decreased on day 5 after immunization. A genetically determined relationship probably exists between low activity of the immune response and high level of reactive anxiety.

Serum endocannabinoid content is altered in females with depressive disorders: a preliminary report

BACKGROUND

Preclinical research has suggested that the endocannabinoid system may be involved in the etiology and/or treatment of depression; however, there are no published studies examining circulating endocannabinoid content in patients with clinical depression.

METHODS

This study examined the endocannabinoids (anandamide; AEA) and 2-arachidonylglycerol (2-AG) in serum from ambulatory, medication-free female patients diagnosed with minor or major depression, and in controls matched for demographic characteristics.

RESULTS

Serum 2-AG content was significantly decreased in patients diagnosed with major depression, and this decrease was correlated significantly and negatively with duration of the depressive episode, such that 2-AG content was progressively lower the longer the depressive episode. While AEA was not associated with major depression PER SE, a strong negative correlation was found between serum AEA content and Hamilton ratings for cognitive and somatic anxiety, suggesting that AEA content may relate to the anxiety dimension of affective disorders. In subjects with minor depression, serum AEA was significantly elevated, with 2-AG content demonstrating a similar, but statistically insignificant trend.

DISCUSSION

These are the first clinical data to indicate that the endocannabinoid system may be disturbed in affective disease, and suggest that future research is required to determine the relevance of these changes with respect to disease manifestation and pharmacotherapy.

A temporal analysis of the relationships between social stress, humoral immune response and glutathione-related antioxidant defenses

The exposure to different kinds of stress impacts on the reactive oxygen species production with potential risk to the integrity of the tissues. Psychological or biological stress is responsible for a significant increase in the oxidative stress markers and also for activation of the antioxidant defense system. In this study, we analyzed the relationships between social stress, humoral immune response and glutathione-related antioxidant defenses. Groups of male Swiss mice were subjected to different lengths of social stress exposure (social confrontation) which varied from 1 up to 13 days. As a biological stressor, 10(9) sheep red blood cells (SRBC)/mL were injected by intraperitoneal route. As controls, animals not subjected to social stress and/or injected with vehicle solution were used. The serum samples and the cerebral cortex were collected at 4 h, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, and 13 days after the end of social confrontation. The results indicated that the antioxidant enzymes activities were affected by psychological as well as by biological stressor. These alterations were dependent on the timing of stress exposure which resulted in a positive or in a negative correlation between the antibody titres to SRBC and antioxidant enzymes. We also discuss the possible role of SRBC injection in the modulation of the effects of psychosocial stress on antioxidant metabolism.

Social isolation in prairie voles induces behaviors relevant to negative affect: toward the development of a rodent model focused on co-occurring depression and anxiety

Recent evidence suggests substantial overlap between mood and anxiety disorders, both in clinical presentation and associated features. A theoretical framework to account for this overlap focuses on negative affectivity, defined as the disposition to experience negative emotional states, including fear, sadness, and guilt. This model has been successful in explaining the co-occurrence of depressive and anxiety disorders in humans. As a next step, development of an animal model focused on both depression- and anxiety-relevant behaviors may advance understanding of depression-anxiety symptom overlap, relations of these disorders with associated medical conditions and responses to treatment. This study was designed to investigate inducible and quantifiable depression- and anxiety-like behaviors in prairie voles (Microtus ochrogaster). Adult, female prairie voles were exposed to 4 weeks of social pairing (control) or isolation, an established stressor for socially monogamous mammals (including humans). Operational measures of depression (sucrose intake and behaviors in the forced swim test), anxiety (behaviors in the elevated plus maze), and aggression (responses to an unrelated prairie vole pup) were investigated. Social isolation induced a progressive decline in sucrose intake and increased immobility time during the forced swim test. Social isolation also decreased the amount of time spent in the open arms of the elevated plus maze, and increased pup-directed attack behavior. The current findings suggest that isolation induces behaviors reflecting elevated negative affect. These results may provide a foundation for creating a rodent model to examine the mechanisms underlying comorbid mood and anxiety disorders.

Epigenetic programming of the stress response in male and female rats by prenatal restraint stress

Exposure to hostile conditions results in a series of coordinated responses aimed at enhancing the probability of survival. The activation of the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) axis plays a pivotal role in the stress response. While the short-term activation of the HPA axis allows adaptive responses to the challenge, in the long run this can be devastating for the organism. In particular, life events occurring during the perinatal period have strong long-term effects on the behavioral and neuroendocrine response to stressors. In male and female rats exposed to prenatal restraint stress (PRS), these effects include a long-lasting hyperactivation of the HPA response associated with an altered circadian rhythm of corticosterone secretion. Furthermore, male animals exhibit sleep disturbances. In males, these HPA dysfunctions have been reported in infant, young, adult and aged animals, thus suggesting a permanent effect of early stress. Interestingly, after exposure to an intense inescapable footshock, female PRS rats durably exhibit a blunted corticosterone secretion response to stress. In male PRS rats exposed to an alcohol challenge, the HPA axis is similarly hyporesponsive. Rats exposed to PRS also show behavioral disturbances. Both male and female PRS rats show high anxiety levels and depression-like behavior during adulthood, although some studies suggest that female PRS rats present low anxiety levels. With ageing, male and female PRS rats exhibit memory impairments in hippocampus-dependent tasks, while female PRS rats improve their memory performance during adulthood. The gender effect on behavior seems to be related to a reduction in hippocampal plasticity in male PRS rats, and an increase in female PRS rats. Despite the permanent imprinting induced by early stress, the dysfunctions observed after PRS can be reversed by environmental or pharmacological strategies such as environmental enrichment or antidepressive and neurotrophic treatments. Mechanisms underlying the effects of PRS on the offspring remain largely unknown. However, previous studies have demonstrated that maternal glucocorticoids during pregnancy play an important role in the HPA disturbances reported in male offspring. Finally, gestational stress has long-lasting effects on the HPA axis and on behavior in the dams. Alterations in maternal behavior could thus also make a strong contribution to the long-term effects of PRS, through epigenetic mechanisms.

Dependence of immune system function and metabolism on reactive anxiety

Reactive anxiety, immune system function, and metabolism were studied in healthy volunteers. Temperament characteristics, state of health, number of leukocytes and platelets, and concentration of glucose, albumin, and fibrinogen significantly differed in subjects with low, moderate, and high level of reactive anxiety.

Effects of interleukin-1beta and lipopolysaccharide on behavior of mice in the elevated plus-maze and open field tests

It has been postulated that infections, inflammatory processes and resulting cytokines may be causative factors in emotional disorders, including depression and anxiety. Support for this possibility has been sought in studies of animal behavior following administration of interleukin-1 (IL-1) and lipopolysaccharide (LPS). However, such treatments induce a variety of behavioral responses, collectively known as sickness behavior, some of which could affect the performance in tests used to assess anxiety and depression. Thus the effects of peripheral administration of IL-1beta and LPS on the behavior of mice were studied in the elevated plus-maze (EPM) and the open field (OF). Mouse IL-1beta (30, 100, 300, and 1000 ng) was injected intraperitoneally 30 or 60 min, and LPS (0.5, 1 and 5 microg) 120 min before the tests. IL-1beta and LPS induced dose-dependent decreases in open arm entries and the time spent on the open arms in the EPM, effects considered to reflect anxiety-like behavior. However, entries to all arms were also reduced in a dose-dependent manner, indicating a decrease in general activity. In the OF, IL-1beta and LPS decreased the number of line crossings in the center of the field, that can also be considered to reflect anxiety-like behavior. However, this effect was accompanied by a similar decrease in line crossings in the periphery, as well as in rears and climbs. Thus the doses of IL-1beta and LPS necessary to induce these effects also decreased locomotor activity in the EPM and OF. Therefore, the behavioral responses induced by IL-1beta and LPS in the EPM and the OF considered to reflect anxiety must be interpreted in the light of this reduction in overall activity. Thus the results do not provide unequivocal support for the suggestion that LPS or IL-1 mediate anxiety. Nevertheless, because infections, endotoxins, and the ensuing cytokines cause alterations in CNS norepinephrine and serotonin, they may contribute to emotionality, and perhaps to anxiety.

Impairment of several immune functions in anxious women

OBJECTIVE

Controversial results concerning immune function changes taking place in anxious subjects have been obtained. The aim of the present work was to study immune function in a group of anxious women.

METHODS

Thirty-three anxious and 33 nonanxious age-matched women were included. Anxiety levels were determined by the Beck Anxiety Inventory. Peripheral blood samples were collected, and several leukocyte functions, as well as cytokine release, were studied. Plasma cortisol levels and total antioxidant capacity were also evaluated.

RESULTS

The results showed diminished chemotaxis, phagocytosis, lymphoproliferation in response to phytohemagglutinin mitogen, natural killer activity, and interleukin-2 release, and augmented superoxide anion levels and tumor necrosis factor-alpha release in anxious women. Plasma cortisol was increased, while total antioxidant capacity was lowered in those subjects.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings suggest impaired immune function and cytokine release in anxious women. This might be related to increased cortisol secretion, which would lead to oxidative stress reflected in lowered plasma total antioxidant capacity.