Who is responsible for global road safety? A cross-cultural comparison of Actor Maps

An ALNS-based approach for the traffic-police-routine-patrol-vehicle assignment problem in resource allocation analysis of traffic crashes

OBJECTIVES

Imbalances between limited police resource allocations and the timely handling of road traffic crashes are prevalent. To optimize resource allocations and route choices for traffic police routine patrol vehicle (RPV) assignments, a dynamic crash handling response model was developed.

METHODS

This approach was characterized by two objective functions: the minimum waiting time and the minimum number of RPVs. In particular, an adaptive large neighborhood search (ALNS) was designed to solve the model. Then, the proposed ALNS-based approach was examined using comprehensive traffic and crash data from Ningbo, China.

RESULTS

Finally, a sensitivity analysis was conducted to evaluate the bi-objective of the proposed model and simultaneously demonstrate the efficiency of the obtained solutions. Two resolution methods, the global static resolution mode, and real-time dynamic resolution mode, were applied to explore the optimal solution.

CONCLUSIONS

The results show that the optimal allocation scheme for traffic police is 13 RPVs based on the global static resolution mode. Specifically, the average waiting time for traffic crash handling can be reduced to 5.5 min, with 53.8% less than 5.0 min and 90.0% less than 10.0 min.

Managing the risks associated with technological disruption in the road transport system: a control structure modelling approach

Road transport is experiencing disruptive change from new first-of-a-kind technologies. While such technologies offer safety and operational benefits, they also pose new risks. It is critical to proactively identify risks during the design, development and testing of new technologies. The Systems Theoretic Accident Model and Processes (STAMP) method analyses the dynamic structure in place to manage safety risks. This study applied STAMP to develop a control structure model for emerging technologies in the Australian road transport system and identified control gaps. The control structure shows the actors responsible for managing risks associated with first-of-a-kind technologies and the existing control and feedback mechanisms. Gaps identified related to controls (e.g. legislation) and feedback mechanisms (e.g. monitoring for behavioural adaptation). The study provides an example of how STAMP can be used to identify control structure gaps requiring attention to support the safe introduction of new technologies.

What Enables Child Sexual Abuse in Sport? A Systematic Review

Sporting environments provide opportunities for perpetrators to commit child sexual abuse (CSA). While awareness of CSA in sport and preventative interventions are increasing, CSA in sport still occurs at alarming rates. A systematic review was conducted to identify and synthesize the extant literature on the enabling factors for CSA in sport. The 34 included articles were peer-reviewed and were primary sources; had full-text versions in English; included the individual, situational, environmental, or systemic antecedent factors and characteristics which enable CSA in organized sport (clubs, schools, universities, and representative teams); and focused on abuse in children (0-18 years old), and included retrospective incidents. The enabling factors from across the broader sports system were identified and mapped using a systems thinking-based approach, the Risk Management Framework (RMF) and the associated AcciMap method. The results indicated that enabling factors for CSA in sport were identified at multiple levels of the sporting system hierarchy. The results show that 24.1% (n = 46) of the enabling factors identified in the literature relate to the hierarchical level of the Athlete, teammates, opponents, and fans levels, and 52.9% (n = 101) of the enabling factors relate to the level of Direct supervisors, management, medical, and performance personnel level. However, only 13% (n = 25) of enabling factors to CSA in sport were identified at the combined top four hierarchical levels. Results indicate that the problem of CSA in sport is a systems issue, and future research is required to explore how these factors interact to enable CSA in sport.

Applying a systems thinking lens to anti-doping: A systematic review identifying the contributory factors to doping in sport

The use of performance enhancing substances and methods (known as "doping") in sport is an intractable issue, with current anti-doping strategies predominantly focused on the personal responsibility and strict liability of individual athletes. This is despite an emerging understanding that athletes exist as part of a broader complex sports system that includes governance, policymakers, media, sponsors, clubs, team members, and athlete support staff, to name a few. As such, there is a need to examine the broader systemic factors that influence doping in sport. The aim of this systematic review was to identify and synthesise the factors contributing to doping and doping behaviours, attitudes, and beliefs and the extent to which this knowledge extends beyond the athlete to consider broader sports systems. The review followed PRISMA guidelines with risk of bias and study quality assessed by the Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool, and identified contributory factors synthesised and mapped onto a systems thinking-based framework. Overall, the included studies were determined to be of high quality. Support personnel, the coach, and the coach-athlete relationship represent key influences on the athletes' decisions to dope. From the evidence presented, doping is an emergent property of sport systems and represents a complex systemic problem that will require whole-of-system interventions. The implications for this and the focus of future research are discussed.

A stakeholder analysis of the road transport system in Tanzania using a STAMP control structure

The way the road transport system is developed in a country affects safety. This study aims to identify roles and relationships of road transport stakeholders and to explore the understanding of control and feedback mechanisms and associated gaps influencing road safety. A System-Theoretic Accident Model and Processes (STAMP) model was applied in document and interview data (n = 30). Participants emphasized the hindrance of overlapping mandates among stakeholders on road transport system's operations and underlined the roles of coalitions for road safety as system enablers. Further, withdrawal of some controls by international agencies can increase system vulnerability. Most importantly, critical control and feedback gaps were shown to increase risks for safety within the road transport system. The findings underscore the complexity of the road transport system and add to the discussion on a system's approach to road safety.

Risk reduction via spatial and temporal visualization of road accidents: a way forward for emergency response optimization in developing countries

To achieve an effective emergency response and road safety, this study aims to assist a semi-automated dynamic system to analyze and predict the spatial distribution and temporal pattern of road crashes. Kasur, an intermediate city of Pakistan, was selected and data including location, time and reasons of accidents for five years (2014-2018) was utilized. Radar charts, Getis-Ord Gi* statistic, Moran's I spatial auto-correlation, and time series indices were engaged to present temporal, spatial and spatial-temporal variation of accidents, using python-based tools and jupyter notebook. A dynamic user interface was created using Github and Tableau to visualize a real-time zoom-able spatiotemporal variation of accidents. The results explain that out of 12 months, October faces the peak while April sees the least of road accidents. 7am is the peak hour for accidents and the weekends record a significantly higher number of road accidents as compared to weekdays. The city core witnesses the major hotspot areas with huge cluster of accidents. The findings contribute towards a well-informed decision support system, the knowledge of spatial analytics and its application in road safety science, and the preparedness of the rescue agencies for rapid response to reduce the impacts of road accidents.

Visualization and Analysis of Global Vision Zero Studies and Policy Orientation in China

As a policy that is widely used worldwide, Vision Zero is a long-term strategic goal for road safety in China. The aim of this paper is to examine the literature in the field of Vision Zero retrieved by the Web of Science (WOS) Core Collection database from 1997 to 2021 based on mapping knowledge domain (MKD) and bibliometric methods. In this paper, we analyzed the overall development level of Vision Zero at different stages using the statistical analysis of the distribution of literature years. Based on the analysis, four major research directions of Vision Zero are obtained through keywords co-occurrence analysis, including "Vision Zero in road safety", "vulnerable road users' risks", "effect of speed on severity", and "responsibility management for crashes". Furthermore, we explore the influence and development potential of each country and region of Vision Zero based on the number and citation frequency of the literature, and the distribution of time dimensions. Among the research topics, all countries and regions are clustered into four clusters, and the current status of Vision Zero for countries in the most influential clusters, which include Sweden, the United States, Australia, China, and Norway, have been presented. Finally, an analysis of road safety in China is carried out, which includes displaying the changes in the number of road accidents, fatalities, and serious injuries in China between 2009 and 2018, comparing the fatalities per 10,000 vehicles and the fatalities per 100,000 people between China and other countries, and describing China's strategic routes toward Vision Zero.

A Case Study on Vestibular Sensations in Driving Simulators

Motion platforms have been used in simulators of all types for several decades. Since it is impossible to reproduce the accelerations of a vehicle without limitations through a physically limited system (platform), it is common to use washout filters and motion cueing algorithms (MCA) to select which accelerations are reproduced and which are not. Despite the time that has passed since their development, most of these algorithms still use the classical washout algorithm. In the use of these MCAs, there is always information that is lost and, if that information is important for the purpose of the simulator (the training simulators), the result obtained by the users of that simulator will not be satisfactory. This paper shows a case study where a BMW 325Xi AUT fitted with a sensor, recorded the accelerations produced in all degrees of freedom (DOF) during several runs, and data have been introduced in mathematical simulation software (washout + kinematics + actuator simulation) of a 6DOF motion platform. The input to the system has been qualitatively compared with the output, observing that most of the simulation adequately reflects the input to the system. Still, there are three events where the accelerations are lost. These events are considered by experts to be of vital importance for the outcome of a learning process in the simulator to be adequate.

Taking a mixed-methods approach to collision investigation: AcciMap, STAMP-CAST and PCM

Recently, ergonomics and safety researchers have turned their attention towards applying combinations of sociotechnical methods rather than using single methods in isolation. In the current research, a mixed-method approach combining two systems-based methods, Accimaps and the Systems Theoretic Accident Model and Process - Causal Analysis using Systems Theory (STAMP-CAST), and one cognitive approach, the Perceptual Cycle Model (PCM), were employed in analysing a rail-level crossing incident in Bangladesh. Each method was applied individually to investigate the collision, and interventions were proposed corresponding to incident events at different risk management framework levels. The three methods provided different perspectives of the whole picture, together identifying an array of contributory factors. The complementary nature of these methods aided in proposing a comprehensive set of safety recommendations, thereby demonstrating the benefit of a mixed-method approach for collision investigation in low-income settings.

[Assessment of road safety intervention implementation in Benin in 2019]

OBJECTIVE

The study aims to assess the level of implementation of road safety interventions in Benin.

METHOD

The research is based on an evaluative study of road safety aimed to analyze the implementation and logic of road safety interventions, conducted in Benin in 2019. It combined a review of the gray literature and a qualitative component. The data were collected through documents and interviews in structures involved in road safety management.

RESULTS

Road safety was a national priority with one lead institution and several structures involved. There was a lack of consensus among stakeholders, insufficient framework documents, resources, legislative texts, and study data. Few roads were in good condition and very few allowed the separation of two-wheeled vehicles. The vehicle fleet was outdated. Various activities were carried out to raise awareness, to educate the population and to enforce the texts but they were insufficient and poorly coordinated. Reference hospitals had the minimum service to deal with trauma cases. The interventions had not yet resulted in a reduction in the number of injuries and fatalities by accidents, which was increasing.

CONCLUSION

Benin has made great efforts in the area of road safety. However, there are still some shortcomings to take into account.

'Over to you': using a STAMP control structure analysis to probe deeper into the control of UK road safety at a municipal level - the case of Cambridgeshire

The UK has seen little progress in reducing road death over the last decade and as a result, the government has been criticised by industry stakeholders for a lack of leadership, including the removal of national targets in 2011 and the devolution of powers to a municipal level. The aim of this paper is to understand how decision-making at a municipal level takes place from a systems perspective, using the case study of Cambridgeshire. Actors involved were mapped using a STAMP control structure analysis and highlighted a key role for formal and informal partnerships between local and national government agencies and non-government organisations at the same level in the control structure. The changing international context of the model for the UK is also discussed in relation to the UK's withdrawal from the European Union and provides a useful tool for future analysis of its effect on policy and decision-making. Practitioner summary: This paper uses a STAMP control structure analysis to understand how decision-making at a municipal level takes place from a systems perspective, using the case study of Cambridgeshire. It highlights a key role for formal and informal partnerships between organisations at the same level in the control structure. Abbreviations: STAMP: System Theoretic Accident Model and Processes; STAMP-CAST: Systems-Theoretic Accident Model and Processes - Causal Analysis using Systems Theory; FRAM: Functional Resonance Analysis Method; HFACS: Human Factors Analysis and Classification Scheme; NGO: Non-Government organisation; iRAP: International Road Assessment Programme; EuroRAP: European Road Assessment Programme; NCAP: New Car Assessment Programme; CCG: Clinical Commissioning Group; GP: General Practitioner; PPE: Personal Protective Equipment; SD: standard deviation; Beds: Bedfordshire; Cambs: Cambridgeshire; Herts: Hertfordshire; Pboro: Peterborough.

25 Years of road safety: The journey from thinking humans to systems-thinking

Research into road safety has evolved from individual level component analysis to a much broader, systemic approach that acknowledges the fusion of 'socio' and 'technical' system elements. Over the past four decades, Professor Neville Stanton has contributed to over 179 journal articles, book chapters and conference papers in the field of road safety. The journey from 'thinking humans' to 'systems thinking' is demonstrated in this paper through the novel application of the Risk Management Framework (RMF) to the categorisation of research activities. A systematic review of Neville's contributions to the field of road safety demonstrates that over the years, his research activities have evolved from investigating single technological or human performance aspects in isolation (e.g., in-vehicle information design and workload) through to the holistic analysis of much broader systems (e.g., investigating road safety as a whole). Importantly, this evolution goes hand in hand with a change in the focus and emphasis of recommendations for improvements to safety. Going forward, Neville has helped pave the way for fundamental changes and improvements to be made to road safety systems around the world.

Exploring the Relationships between Demographics, Road Safety Attitudes, and Self-Reported Pedestrian Behaviours in Bangladesh

Pedestrians are the most vulnerable road users in low- and middle-income countries, hence understanding their attitudes towards traffic safety and the pedestrian behaviours associated with those attitudes is vital. The current study identifies the factor structure of a self-report questionnaire on pedestrian behaviours and road safety attitudes and explores the relationships between them. It also assesses demographic effects. A total of 532 people were surveyed. The questionnaire sections related to attitudes and behaviours were developed for use in different, largely high-income settings, hence their suitability for use in the low-income setting of Bangladesh was first assessed using Principal Component Analysis (PCA). A structural equation model was then developed to examine the relationships between attitudes and pedestrian behaviours. It was found that positive attitudes towards traffic safety were associated with safer pedestrian behaviours, and that males, younger respondents, and less educated respondents reported performing riskier behaviours and holding more dangerous attitudes to road safety. Results are discussed in terms of the factors likely to influence such behaviours, as well as a discussion on the need for validation of the research tools which have been developed in high-income settings for low-income settings.

Resolving the differences between system development and system operation using STAMP: a road safety case study in a low-income setting

Road safety strategies adopted worldwide have made significant progress in reducing road trauma, but have stagnated more recently. The situation in low- and middle-income countries is even worse with no significant decrease in fatality rates. Safety researchers have argued that adopting sociotechnical systems approach is necessary to make significant advancements and improvements. The aim of this study was to develop a control structure model of the Bangladesh road safety system by identifying the actors and organisations involved across the system. Expert stakeholders were identified and interviewed, and relevant information was gathered in order to generate the Systems Theoretic Accident Model and Process control structure model. Throughout the analysis of this model, differences in the control and feedback mechanisms of the system were identified, and road safety intervention recommendations were made. Future research should also predict potential risks within the system and propose proactive and preventative countermeasures. Practitioner summary: In this article, a Systems Theoretic Accident Model and Process control structure model of the Bangladesh road safety system is developed, and the involved actors are identified. Based on interviews and workshops with expert stakeholders, differences in the controls and feedback mechanisms in the system were identified, and road safety intervention recommendations were made. Abbreviations: BUET: Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology.

Representing two road traffic collisions in one Accimap: highlighting the importance of emergency response and enforcement in a low-income country

Seemingly erratic pedestrian crossing has become a major source of vehicle-pedestrian collisions on highways in Bangladesh, and across other low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). In this article, we approach the challenge from a sociotechnical systems perspective by using the Accimap method to analyse a pair of time-separated yet interconnected road traffic collisions. The first event involved a truck colliding with a road divider; in the second, fatal incident, a bus hit a university student. The traditional-style investigation conducted immediately after the collision apportioned blame to end users, that is, drivers and pedestrian; however, application of sociotechnical systems thinking revealed the contribution from lack of emergency response and enforcement among many other important factors. Results and recommendations are discussed in terms of reducing the chance and severity of such collisions across LMICs, and in terms of the need to look beyond the end-user, a focus that remains dominant in such settings. Practitioner summary: This paper applies sociotechnical systems thinking to pedestrian safety in Bangladesh by analysing two inter-connected road traffic collisions using a single Accimap. The findings emphasise the importance of implementing road safety interventions that target all system levels, and draw attention to the importance of post-collision response in low-income settings. Abbreviation: BUET: Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology.

Computational modelling and systems ergonomics: a system dynamics model of drink driving-related trauma prevention

System dynamics is a computational modelling method that is used to understand the dynamic interactions influencing behaviour in complex systems. In this article we argue that the method provides a useful tool for ergonomists wishing to model the behaviour of complex systems. We present a system dynamics model that simulates the behaviour of a drink driving-related trauma system and explore the potential impact of different road safety policy interventions. The model was simulated over thirty-year periods with different policy interventions. The findings suggest that the greatest reduction in drink driving-related trauma can be achieved by policies that integrate standard road safety interventions (e.g. education and enforcement) with interventions designed to address the societal issue of alcohol misuse and addiction. In closing we discuss the potential use of system dynamics modelling in future ergonomics applications and outline its strengths and weaknesses in relation to existing systems ergonomics methods. Practitioner Summary: The outputs of systems ergonomics methods are typically static and cannot simulate behaviour over time. We propose system dynamics as a useful approach for modelling the behaviour of complex systems. Applied to drink driving-related road trauma, the method was able to dynamically model the potential impacts of different policy interventions.

How do fatalistic beliefs affect the attitudes and pedestrian behaviours of road users in different countries? A cross-cultural study

This paper reports on an exploratory investigation of the influence of five different fatalistic belief constructs (divine control, luck, helplessness, internality, and general fatalism) on three classes of self-reported pedestrian behaviours (memory and attention errors, rule violations, and aggressive behaviours) and on respondents' general attitudes to road safety, and how relationships between constructs differ across countries. A survey of over 3400 respondents across Bangladesh, China, Kenya, Thailand, the UK, and Vietnam revealed a similar pattern for most of the relationships assessed, in most countries; those who reported higher fatalistic beliefs or more external attributions of causality also reported performing riskier pedestrian behaviours and holding more dangerous attitudes to road safety. The strengths of relationships between constructs did, however, differ by country, behaviour type, and aspect of fatalism. One particularly notable country difference was that in Bangladesh and, to a lesser extent, in Kenya, a stronger belief in divine influence over one's life was associated with safer attitudes and behaviours, whereas where significant relationships existed in the other countries the opposite was true. In some cases, the effect of fatalistic beliefs on self-reported behaviours was mediated through attitudes, in other cases the effect was direct. Results are discussed in terms of the need to consider the effect of locus of control and attributions of causality on attitudes and behaviours, and the need to understand the differences between countries therein.

The common road safety approaches: A scoping review and thematic analysis

PURPOSE

Comparison of effective road safety approaches with those of relatively similar countries can be used to identify possibilities for safety improvement. Since there is no clear and comprehensive study of countries' current and successful approaches to road safety in the world, the aim of this study was to identifying common road safety approaches in the world.

METHODS

This study was performed using scoping review and thematic analysis. The study followed the approach proposed by Arksey and O'Malley. In this study all articles were selected without time limit by searching in the following databases: Web of Science, PubMed, Scopus, ProQuest, and Embase. An initial search of 5612 papers was found and finally, 20 papers met the inclusion criteria and were analyzed.

RESULTS

There were different road safety approaches in different countries around the world, which were classified in three themes: traditional approach, systemic approach, and vision zero. The traditional approach includes the sub-theme of the road-user approach, and the causal approach. The systemic approach also includes sub-themes of sustainable safety, safety system, and the United Nations plan for decade of action.

CONCLUSION

A systemic approach to road safety seems to be welcomed by most developed and developing countries, and a paradigm shift towards a safe system has taken place. Also, given the successful results of implementing vision zero in leading countries, most countries are trying to design and implement this approach. Finally, the choice and implementation of road safety approaches varies according to the principles, priorities and infrastructure of each country.

Road Safety in Low-Income Countries: State of Knowledge and Future Directions

Road safety in low-income countries (LICs) remains a major concern. Given the expected increase in traffic exposure due to the relatively rapid motorisation of transport in LICs, it is imperative to better understand the underlying mechanisms of road safety. This in turn will allow for planning cost-effective road safety improvement programs in a timely manner. With the general aim of improving road safety in LICs, this paper discusses the state of knowledge and proposes a number of future research directions developed from literature reviews and expert elicitation. Our study takes a holistic approach based on the Safe Systems framework and the framework for the UN Decade of Action for Road Safety. We focused mostly on examining the problem from traffic engineering and safety policy standpoints, but also touched upon other sectors, including public health and social sciences. We identified ten focus areas relating to (i) under-reporting; (ii) global best practices; (iii) vulnerable groups; (iv) disabilities; (v) road crash costing; (vi) vehicle safety; (vii) proactive approaches; (viii) data challenges; (ix) social/behavioural aspects; and (x) capacity building. Based on our findings, future research ought to focus on improvement of data systems, understanding the impact of and addressing non-fatal injuries, improving estimates on the economic burden, implementation research to scale up programs and transfer learnings, as well as capacity development. Our recommendations, which relate to both empirical and methodological frontiers, would lead to noteworthy improvements in the way road safety data collection and research is conducted in the context of LICs.

Who is responsible for automated driving? A macro-level insight into automated driving in the United Kingdom using the Risk Management Framework and Social Network Analysis

To date, vehicle manufacturers have largely been left to their own initiatives when it comes to the design, development and implementation of automated driving features. Whilst this has enabled developments within the field to accelerate at a rapid pace, we are also now beginning to see the negative aspects of automated design (e.g., driver complacency, automation misuse and ethical dilemmas). It is therefore becoming increasingly important to identify systemic aspects that can address some of these Human Factors challenges. This paper applies the principles of the Risk Management Framework to explore the wider systemic issues associated with automated driving in the United Kingdom through the novel application of network metrics. The authors propose a number of recommendations targeted at each level of the Risk Management Framework that seek to shift the power of influence away from vehicle manufacturers and back into the hands of governing bodies.

Vulnerable road users in low-, middle-, and high-income countries: Validation of a Pedestrian Behaviour Questionnaire

The primary aim of this study was to validate the short version of a Pedestrian Behaviour Questionnaire across six culturally and economically distinct countries; Bangladesh, China, Kenya, Thailand, the UK, and Vietnam. The questionnaire comprised 20 items that asked respondents to rate the extent to which they perform certain types of pedestrian behaviours, with each behaviour belonging to one of five categories identified in previous literature; violations, errors, lapses, aggressive behaviours, and positive behaviours. The sample consisted of 3423 respondents across the six countries. Confirmatory factor analysis was used to assess the fit of the data to the five-factor structure, and a four-factor structure in which violations and errors were combined into one factor (seen elsewhere in the literature). For some items, factor loadings were unacceptably low, internal reliability was low for two of the sub-scales, and model fit indices were generally unacceptable for both models. As such, only the violations, lapses, and aggressions sub-scales were retained (those with acceptable reliability and factor loadings), and the three-factor model tested. Although results suggest that the violations sub-scale may need additional attention, the three-factor solution showed the best fit to the data. The resulting 12-item scale is discussed with regards to country differences, and with respect to its utility as a research tool in cross-cultural studies of road user behaviour.

Traffic Accident Spatial Simulation Modeling for Planning of Road Emergency Services

The appropriate locations of road emergency stations (RESs) can help to decrease the impact of traffic accidents that cause around 50 million injuries per year worldwide. In this research, the appropriateness of existing RESs in the Khuzestan province, Iran, was assessed using an integrated fuzzy analytical hierarchy process (FAHP) and geographic information system (GIS) approach. The data used in this research were collected from different sources, including the department of roads, the department of health, the statistics organization, forensics, police centers, the surveying and geological department, remotely-sensed and global positioning system (GPS) data of accident high crash zones. On the basis of previous studies and the requirements of the Ministry of Health and Medical Education, as well as the department of roads of Iran for the location of RESs, nine criteria and 19 sub-criteria were adopted, including population, safety, environmental indicators, compatible area in RES, incompatible area in RES, type of road, accident high crash zones, traffic level and performance radius. The FAHP yielded the criteria weights and the ideal locations for establishing RESs using GIS analysis and aggregation functions. The resulting map matched the known road accident and high crash zones very well. The results indicated that the current RES stations are not distributed appropriately along the major roads of the Khuzestan province, and a re-arrangement is suggested. The finding of the present study can help decision-makers and authorities to achieve sustainable road safety in the case study area.