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Suzuki N, Konuma T, Ikegami T, Akashi S. Biophysical insights into the dimer formation of human Sirtuin 2. Protein Sci 2024; 33:e4994. [PMID: 38647411 PMCID: PMC11034489 DOI: 10.1002/pro.4994] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2023] [Revised: 03/16/2024] [Accepted: 04/03/2024] [Indexed: 04/25/2024]
Abstract
Sirtuin 2 (SIRT2) is a class III histone deacetylase that is highly conserved from bacteria to mammals. We prepared and characterized the wild-type (WT) and mutant forms of the histone deacetylase (HDAC) domain of human SIRT2 (hSIRT2) using various biophysical methods and evaluated their deacetylation activity. We found that WT hSIRT2 HDAC (residues 52-357) forms a homodimer in a concentration-dependent manner with a dimer-monomer dissociation constant of 8.3 ± 0.5 μM, which was determined by mass spectrometry. The dimer was disrupted into two monomers by binding to the HDAC inhibitors SirReal1 and SirReal2. We also confirmed dimer formation of hSIRT2 HDAC in living cells using a NanoLuc complementation reporter system. Examination of the relationship between dimer formation and deacetylation activity using several mutants of hSIRT2 HDAC revealed that some non-dimerizing mutants exhibited deacetylation activity for the N-terminal peptide of histone H3, similar to the wild type. The hSIRT2 HDAC mutant Δ292-306, which lacks a SIRT2-specific disordered loop region, was identified to exist as a monomer with slightly reduced deacetylation activity; the X-ray structure of the mutant Δ292-306 was almost identical to that of the WT hSIRT2 HDAC bound to an inhibitor. These results indicate that hSIRT2 HDAC forms a dimer, but this is independent of deacetylation activity. Herein, we discuss insights into the dimer formation of hSIRT2 based on our biophysical experimental results.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noa Suzuki
- Graduate School of Medical Life Science, Yokohama City UniversityYokohamaKanagawaJapan
| | - Tsuyoshi Konuma
- Graduate School of Medical Life Science, Yokohama City UniversityYokohamaKanagawaJapan
| | - Takahisa Ikegami
- Graduate School of Medical Life Science, Yokohama City UniversityYokohamaKanagawaJapan
| | - Satoko Akashi
- Graduate School of Medical Life Science, Yokohama City UniversityYokohamaKanagawaJapan
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2
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Al-Garawi ZS, Al-Qaisi AHI, Al-Shamari KA, Öztürkkan FE, Necefoğlu H. The utility of Hibiscus sabdariffa L. to prepare metal oxides NPs for clinical application on osteoporosis supported by theoretical study. Bioprocess Biosyst Eng 2024:10.1007/s00449-024-03012-5. [PMID: 38573334 DOI: 10.1007/s00449-024-03012-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2023] [Accepted: 03/28/2024] [Indexed: 04/05/2024]
Abstract
Green synthesis of metal oxides as a treatment for bone diseases is still exploring. Herein, MgO and Fe2O3 NPs were prepared from the extract of Hibiscus sabdariffa L. to study their effect on vit D3, Ca+2, and alkaline phosphatase enzyme ALP associated with osteoporosis. Computational chemistry was utilized to gain insight into the possible interactions. These oxides were characterized by X-ray diffraction, SEM, FTIR, and AFM. Results revealed that green synthesis of MgO and Fe2O3 NPs was successful with abundant. MgO NPs were in vitro applied on osteoporosis patients (n = 35) and showed a significant elevation of vit D3 and Ca+2 (0.0001 > p < 0.001) levels, compared to healthy volunteers (n = 25). Thus, Hibiscus sabdariffa L. is a good candidate to prepare MgO NPs, with a promising enhancing effect on vit D3 and Ca+2 in osteoporosis. In addition, interactions of Fe2O3 and MgO NPs with ALP were determined by molecular docking study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zahraa S Al-Garawi
- Department of Chemistry, College of Sciences, Mustansiriyah University, Baghdad, Iraq.
| | | | | | | | - Hacali Necefoğlu
- Department of Chemistry, Kafkas University, Kars, 36100, Türkiye
- International Scientific Research Centre, Baku State University, Baku, 1148, Azerbaijan
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3
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Huang Z, Ma Y, Xie Y, Zhao D, Li C. Carrageenan in meat: improvement in lipid metabolism due to Sirtuin1-mediated fatty acid oxidation and inhibited lipid bioavailability. Food Funct 2023. [PMID: 37219362 DOI: 10.1039/d3fo00906h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Kappa-carrageenan (κ-CGN) is widely used in the meat industry. However, its impact on the host metabolism is less revealed. The current study investigated the effect of κ-CGN in pork-based diets on the lipid metabolism of male C57BL/6J mice. The κ-CGN supplement significantly suppressed the increase in body weight by 6.79 g on an average. Supplement of κ-CGN in high-fat diets significantly upregulated the genes and protein expression of Sirtuin1, which was accompanied by the increased gene expression of downstream fatty acids oxidation (Cpt1a and Acadl). The sirtuin1-mediated improvement of lipid metabolism was negatively associated with the levels of bile acids, especially for deoxycholic acid, 3β-cholic acid, glycodeoxycholic acid and glycolithocholic acid. Moreover, κ-CGN in high-fat diets inhibited lipid digestion and absorption, being associated with the decrease in lipid accumulation and improved serum lipid profile. These results highlighted the role of κ-CGN in alleviating diet-induced adiposity by promoting energy expenditure and suppressing the bioavailability of ingested lipids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhiji Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Meat Quality Control and Cultured Meat Development, MOST; Key Laboratory of Meat Processing, MOA; Jiangsu Synergetic Innovation Center of Meat Production, Processing and Quality Control; Nanjing Agricultural University; Nanjing 210095, P.R. China.
| | - Yafang Ma
- State Key Laboratory of Meat Quality Control and Cultured Meat Development, MOST; Key Laboratory of Meat Processing, MOA; Jiangsu Synergetic Innovation Center of Meat Production, Processing and Quality Control; Nanjing Agricultural University; Nanjing 210095, P.R. China.
| | - Yunting Xie
- State Key Laboratory of Meat Quality Control and Cultured Meat Development, MOST; Key Laboratory of Meat Processing, MOA; Jiangsu Synergetic Innovation Center of Meat Production, Processing and Quality Control; Nanjing Agricultural University; Nanjing 210095, P.R. China.
| | - Di Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Meat Quality Control and Cultured Meat Development, MOST; Key Laboratory of Meat Processing, MOA; Jiangsu Synergetic Innovation Center of Meat Production, Processing and Quality Control; Nanjing Agricultural University; Nanjing 210095, P.R. China.
| | - Chunbao Li
- State Key Laboratory of Meat Quality Control and Cultured Meat Development, MOST; Key Laboratory of Meat Processing, MOA; Jiangsu Synergetic Innovation Center of Meat Production, Processing and Quality Control; Nanjing Agricultural University; Nanjing 210095, P.R. China.
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Singh AK, Peng BY, Chien ST, Chan CH, Deng YH, Pai HY, Wei HJ, Wang MF, Wang SH, Wu CY, Deng WP. Anti-aging biomaterial sturgeon chondroitin sulfate upregulating anti-oxidant and SIRT-1/c-fos gene expression to reprogram stem cell senescence and prolong longevity. Biomater Sci 2023. [PMID: 37158091 DOI: 10.1039/d2bm01997c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Aging involves tissue and cell potential dysfunction characterized by stem cell senescence and extracellular matrix microenvironment (ECM) alteration. Chondroitin sulfate (CS), found in the ECM of normal cells and tissues, aids in maintaining tissue homeostasis. Here, CS-derived biomaterial (CSDB) from sturgeon is extracted to investigate its antiaging effect in senescence-accelerated mouse prone-8 (SAMP8) mice and elucidate the underlying mechanism of its action. Although CSDB has been widely extracted from different sources and used as a scaffold, hydrogel, or drug carrier for the treatment of various pathological diseases, CSDB has not yet been used as a biomaterial for the amelioration of senescence and aging features. In this study, the extracted sturgeon CSDB showed a low molecular weight and comprised 59% 4-sulfated CS and 23% 6-sulfated CS. In an in vitro study, sturgeon CSDB promoted cell proliferation and reduced oxidative stress to inhibit stem cell senescence. In an ex vivo study, after oral CSDB treatment of SAMP8 mice, the stem cells were extracted to analyze the p16Ink4a and p19Arf gene-related pathways, which were inhibited and then SIRT-1 gene expression was upregulated to reprogram stem cells from a senescence state for retarding aging. In an in vivo study, CSDB also restored the aging-phenotype-related bone mineral density and skin morphology to prolong longevity. Thus, sturgeon CSDB may be useful for prolonging healthy longevity as an anti-aging drug.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abhinay Kumar Singh
- School of Dentistry, College of Oral Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei 110301, Taiwan
- Stem Cell Research Center, College of Oral Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei 110301, Taiwan.
| | - Bou-Yue Peng
- Department of Dentistry, Taipei Medical University Hospital, Taipei 110301, Taiwan
- School of Dentistry, College of Oral Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei 110301, Taiwan
| | - Shaw-Ting Chien
- Stem Cell Research Center, College of Oral Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei 110301, Taiwan.
| | - Chun-Hao Chan
- School of Dentistry, College of Oral Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei 110301, Taiwan
- Stem Cell Research Center, College of Oral Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei 110301, Taiwan.
| | - Yue-Hua Deng
- School of Dentistry, College of Oral Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei 110301, Taiwan
- Stem Cell Research Center, College of Oral Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei 110301, Taiwan.
| | - Hsiao-Yu Pai
- Stem Cell Research Center, College of Oral Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei 110301, Taiwan.
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Materials and Tissue Engineering, Taipei Medical University, Taipei 110301, Taiwan
| | - Hong-Jian Wei
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, 630 W. 168th Street, New York, NY, 10032, USA
| | - Ming-Fu Wang
- Department of Food and Nutrition, Providence University, Taichung 433303, Taiwan
| | - Shwu-Huey Wang
- Core Facility Center, Department of Research Development, Taipei Medical University, Taipei 11030, Taiwan
| | - Chia-Yu Wu
- School of Dentistry, College of Oral Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei 110301, Taiwan
- Division of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Department of Dentistry, Taipei Medical University Hospital, Taipei 110301, Taiwan.
| | - Win-Ping Deng
- School of Dentistry, College of Oral Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei 110301, Taiwan
- Stem Cell Research Center, College of Oral Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei 110301, Taiwan.
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Science, Fu Jen Catholic University, Taipei 242062, Taiwan
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Quan X, Xin Y, Wang HL, Sun Y, Chen C, Zhang J. Implications of altered sirtuins in metabolic regulation and oral cancer. PeerJ 2023; 11:e14752. [PMID: 36815979 PMCID: PMC9936870 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.14752] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2022] [Accepted: 12/27/2022] [Indexed: 02/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Sirtuins (SIRTs 1-7) are a group of histone deacetylase enzymes with a wide range of enzyme activities that target a range of cellular proteins in the nucleus, cytoplasm, and mitochondria for posttranslational modifications by acetylation (SIRT1, 2, 3, and 5) or ADP ribosylation (SIRT4, 6, and 7). A variety of cellular functions, including mitochondrial functions and functions in energy homeostasis, metabolism, cancer, longevity and ageing, are regulated by sirtuins. Compromised sirtuin functions and/or alterations in the expression levels of sirtuins may lead to several pathological conditions and contribute significantly to alterations in metabolic phenotypes as well as oral carcinogenesis. Here, we describe the basic characteristics of seven mammalian sirtuins. This review also emphasizes the key molecular mechanisms of sirtuins in metabolic regulation and discusses the possible relationships of sirtuins with oral cancers. This review will provide novel insight into new therapeutic approaches targeting sirtuins that may potentially lead to effective strategies for combating oral malignancies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xu Quan
- Department of Stomatology, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai, China
| | - Ying Xin
- Key Laboratory of Shaanxi Province for Craniofacial Precision Medicine Research, College of Stomatology, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, Shaanxi, China,Department of Pathology, College of Stomatology, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, Shaanxi, China
| | - He-Ling Wang
- Department of Clinical Molecular Biology, University of Oslo and Akershus University Hospital, Lørenskog, Norway
| | - Yingjie Sun
- Xiangya School of Stomatology, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Chanchan Chen
- Department of Stomatology, Shenzhen Children’s Hospital, Shenzhen, Guangdong, China
| | - Jiangying Zhang
- Xiangya School of Stomatology, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
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Szukiewicz D, Eubanks JH. Editorial: Sirtuins and brain homeostasis. Front Physiol 2022; 13:1049226. [PMID: 36324313 PMCID: PMC9619038 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2022.1049226] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2022] [Accepted: 10/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Dariusz Szukiewicz
- Department of Biophysics, Physiology and Pathophysiology, Faculty of Health Sciences, Medical University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
- *Correspondence: Dariusz Szukiewicz,
| | - James Howard Eubanks
- Division of Experimental and Translational Neuroscience, Krembil Research Institute, University Health Network, Toronto, ON, Canada
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Liu Y, Shi G. Roles of sirtuins in asthma. Respir Res 2022; 23:251. [PMID: 36117172 PMCID: PMC9482752 DOI: 10.1186/s12931-022-02175-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2022] [Accepted: 09/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Sirtuins are nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+)-dependent lysine deacylases and deacetylases that participate in a variety of cellular processes, including transcriptional activity, energy metabolism, DNA damage response, inflammation, apoptosis, autophagy, and oxidative stress. As a result, sirtuins are linked to multiple pathophysiological processes, such as cardiovascular diseases, metabolic diseases, autoimmune diseases, infectious diseases, and respiratory diseases. Asthma is the most common respiratory disease, which is characterized by airway inflammation and airway remodeling. Accumulating evidence has indicated that sirtuins are involved in the pathogenesis of asthma. Furthermore, some studies have suggested that sirtuin modulators are potential agents for the treatment of asthma via alteration of the expression or activity of sirtuins. In this review, we illustrate the role of sirtuins in asthma, discuss related molecular mechanisms, and evaluate the sirtuins-targeted therapy for asthma.
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Venkatappa MM, Udagani C, Hanumegowda SM, Pramod SN, Venkataramaiah S, Rangappa R, Achur R, Alataway A, Dewidar AZ, Al-Yafrsi M, A. Mahmoud E, Elansary HO, Sannaningaiah D. Effect of Biofunctional Green Synthesized MgO-Nanoparticles on Oxidative-Stress-Induced Tissue Damage and Thrombosis. Molecules 2022; 27:molecules27165162. [PMID: 36014400 PMCID: PMC9413574 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27165162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2022] [Revised: 08/02/2022] [Accepted: 08/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The present study describes the green biofunctional synthesis of magnesium oxide (MgO) nanoparticles using the aqueous Tarenna asiatica fruit extract. The characterization of Tarenna asiatica fruit extract MgO nanoparticles (TAFEMgO NPs) was achieved by X-ray powder diffraction, UV-Vis spectroscopy, FTIR, TEM, SEM, and energy-dispersive X-ray diffraction. TAFEMgO NPs scavenged the DPPH free radicals with an IC50 value of 55.95 μg/μL, and it was highly significant compared to the standard. To authenticate the observed antioxidant potential of TAFEMgO NPs, oxidative stress was induced in red blood cells (RBC) using sodium nitrite (NaNO2). Interestingly, TAFEMgO NPs ameliorated the RBC damage from oxidative stress by significantly restoring the stress parameters, such as the protein carbonyl content (PCC), lipid peroxidation (LPO), total thiol (TT), super-oxide dismutase (SOD), and catalase (CAT). Furthermore, oxidative stress was induced in-vivo in Sprague Dawley female rats using diclofenac (DFC). TAFEMgO NPs normalized the stress parameters in-vivo and minimized the oxidative damage in tissues. Most importantly, TAFEMgO NPs restored the function and architecture of the damaged livers, kidneys, and small intestines by regulating biochemical parameters. TAFEMgO NPs exhibited an anticoagulant effect by increasing the clotting time from 193 s in the control to 885 s in the platelet rich plasma. TAFEMgO NPs prolonged the formation of the clot process in the activated partial thromboplastin time and the prothrombin time, suggest the effective involvement in both intrinsic and extrinsic clotting pathways of the blood coagulation cascade. TAFEMgO NPs inhibited adenosine di-phosphate (ADP)-induced platelet aggregation. TAFEMgO NPs did not show hemolytic, hemorrhagic, and edema-inducing properties at the tested concentration of 100 mg/kgbody weight, suggesting its non-toxic property. In conclusion, TAFEMgO NPs mitigates the sodium nitrite (NaNO2)- and diclofenac (DFC)-induced stress due to oxidative damage in both in vitro and in vivo experimental models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manjula M. Venkatappa
- Department of Biochemistry, Kuvempu University, Shankaraghatta, Shimoga 577451, India
| | - Chikkappa Udagani
- Department of Physics, University College of Science, Tumkur University, Tumkur 572103, India
| | | | | | - Shivakumar Venkataramaiah
- Centre for Bioscience and Innovation, Department of Studies and Research in Biochemistry, Tumkur University, Tumkur 572103, India
| | | | - Rajeshwara Achur
- Department of Biochemistry, Kuvempu University, Shankaraghatta, Shimoga 577451, India
| | - Abed Alataway
- Prince Sultan Bin Abdulaziz International Prize for Water Chair, Prince Sultan Institute for Environmental, Water and Desert Research, King Saud University, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia
| | - Ahmed Z. Dewidar
- Prince Sultan Bin Abdulaziz International Prize for Water Chair, Prince Sultan Institute for Environmental, Water and Desert Research, King Saud University, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia
- Department of Agricultural Engineering, College of Food and Agriculture Sciences, King Saud University, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia
| | - Mohamed Al-Yafrsi
- Plant Production Department, College of Food & Agriculture Sciences, King Saud University, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia
| | - Eman A. Mahmoud
- Department of Food Industries, Faculty of Agriculture, Damietta University, Damietta 34511, Egypt
| | - Hosam O. Elansary
- Plant Production Department, College of Food & Agriculture Sciences, King Saud University, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia
- Correspondence: (H.O.E.); (D.S.); Tel.: +966-581216322 (H.O.E.); +91-9902838928 (D.S.)
| | - Devaraja Sannaningaiah
- Centre for Bioscience and Innovation, Department of Studies and Research in Biochemistry, Tumkur University, Tumkur 572103, India
- Correspondence: (H.O.E.); (D.S.); Tel.: +966-581216322 (H.O.E.); +91-9902838928 (D.S.)
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Xie Y, Tian Y, Zhang Y, Zhang Z, Chen R, Li M, Tang J, Bian J, Li Z, Xu X. Overview of the development of selective androgen receptor modulators (SARMs) as pharmacological treatment for osteoporosis (1998–2021). Eur J Med Chem 2022; 230:114119. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2022.114119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2021] [Revised: 12/20/2021] [Accepted: 01/09/2022] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
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Abstract
Osteoporosis is a systemic degenerative bone disease characterized by low bone mass and damage to bone microarchitecture, which increases bone fragility and susceptibility to fracture. The risk of osteoporosis increases with age; with the aging of the global population, osteoporosis is becoming more prevalent, adding to the societal healthcare burden. Histone modifications such as methylation, acetylation, ubiquitination, and ADP-ribosylation are closely related to the occurrence and development of osteoporosis. This article reviews recent studies on the role of histone modifications in osteoporosis. The existing evidence indicates that therapeutic targeting of these modifications to promote osteogenic differentiation and bone formation may be an effective treatment for this disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pan Sun
- Longhua Hospital, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China
- Institute of Spine, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Tingrui Huang
- Longhua Hospital, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China
- Institute of Spine, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Chen Huang
- Longhua Hospital, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China
- Institute of Spine, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Yongjun Wang
- Institute of Spine, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China
- Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China
- *Correspondence: Yongjun Wang, ; Dezhi Tang,
| | - Dezhi Tang
- Longhua Hospital, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China
- Institute of Spine, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China
- *Correspondence: Yongjun Wang, ; Dezhi Tang,
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