Oxidative stress, DNA damage and apoptosis induced by tebuconazole in the kidney of male Wistar rat

Runoff of foliar-applied natural fungicides in aquaponics: Implications for fish and nitrification

Aquaponics is a method of producing food in a sustainable manner through the integration of aquaculture and hydroponics, which allows simultaneous cultivation of fish and economic crops. The use of natural fungicides are crucial to the sustainable control of diseases in aquaponics. We assessed the potential impacts of natural fungicides, such as clove oil and lecithin, as well as a synthetic fungicide, tebuconazole, following foliar application in aquaponics. This study examined the runoff rates of the fungicides in decoupled aquaponics, and the subsequent effects of the runoffs on nitrification processes and Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). The runoffs of the foliar-applied fungicides, clove oil, lecithin, and tebuconazole, were detected in aquaponics water at a percentage runoff rate of 0.3 %, 2.3 %, and 0.3-0.8 % respectively. In the biofilter, lecithin altered the ammonium levels by increasing ammonium-nitrogen levels by 7 mg L-1, 6 h post application. Clove oil, on the other hand, showed no significant effect on ammonium, nitrite, and nitrate-nitrogen. Similarly, the toxicity test showed that eugenol had no significant effects on the hematological, biochemical and antioxidative activities of O. niloticus. Conversely, tebuconazole exhibited significant and persistent effects on various biochemical parameters, including lactate, albumin, and total protein, as well as hematological parameters like hemoglobin and MCH. The use of lecithin and tebuconazole should only be limited to decoupled aquaponics.

Identification of metabolites generated in the biotransformation process by the Danio rerio (zebrafish) exposed to the fungicide tebuconazole

Tebuconazole is a triazole fungicide widely used in agricultural crops for control of multiple fungal, mainly foliar and soil-borne diseases. Due to its intense use, this pesticide has been detected on aquatic matrices in different countries, which makes it necessary to identify metabolites capable to be used in its exposure monitoring. The aim of this work was to evaluate tebuconazole metabolites in zebrafish water tanks using liquid chromatography coupled to a high-resolution mass spectrometer (LCHRMS) to highlight analytical targets to monitor tebuconazole exposure in aquatic environments. Two Phase I metabolites, TEB-OH and TEB-COOH, and one Phase II metabolite, TEB-S, were identified. Target metabolomics pointed TEB-S as the most important metabolite for discrimination between treatment and negative control group and potential surrogate for detection and monitoring of tebuconazole exposure in aquatic environments. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to suggest the sulphation of tebuconazole (TEB-S) by zebrafish metabolism. Moreover, the use of water samples proved to be a promising approach when compared to the usual biological matrices (e.g. plasma) for evaluating the exposure of aquatic animals to tebuconazole because it is a clean and easy to obtain matrix. Water samples presented a higher concentration of metabolites when compared to plasma samples. The results suggest the applicability of this assay model for the identification of potential biomarkers for monitoring the presence of xenobiotics in water.

Potential Involvement of Oxidative Stress, Apoptosis and Proinflammation in Ipconazole-Induced Cytotoxicity in Human Endothelial-like Cells

Triazole fungicides are widely used in the world, mainly in agriculture, but their abuse and possible toxic effects are being reported in some in vivo and in vitro studies that have demonstrated their danger to human health. This in vitro study evaluated the cytotoxicity, oxidative stress and proinflammation of EA.hy926 endothelial cells in response to ipconazole exposure. Using the MTT assay, ipconazole was found to produce a dose-dependent reduction (*** p < 0.001; concentrations of 20, 50 and 100 µM) of cell viability in EA.hy926 with an IC50 of 29 µM. Also, ipconazole induced a significant increase in ROS generation (** p < 0.01), caspase 3/7 (** p < 0.01), cell death (BAX, APAF1, BNIP3, CASP3 and AKT1) and proinflammatory (NLRP3, CASP1, IL1β, NFκB, IL6 and TNFα) biomarkers, as well as a reduction in antioxidant (NRF2 and GPx) biomarkers. These results demonstrated that oxidative stress, proinflammatory activity and cell death could be responsible for the cytotoxic effect produced by the fungicide ipconazole, such that this triazole compound should be considered as a possible risk factor in the development of alterations in cellular homeostasis.

The fungicide tebuconazole modulates the sodium current of human NaV1.5 channels expressed in HEK293 cells

The fungicide Tebuconazole is a widely used pesticide in agriculture and may cause cardiotoxicity. In our present investigation the effect of Tebuconazole on the sodium current (INa) of human cardiac sodium channels (NaV1.5) was studied using a heterologous expression system and whole-cell patch-clamp techniques. Tebuconazole reduced the amplitude of the peak INa in a concentration- and voltage-dependent manner. At the holding potential of -120 mV the IC50 was estimated at 204.1 ± 34.3 μM, while at -80 mV the IC50 was 0.3 ± 0.1 μM. The effect of the fungicide is more pronounced at more depolarized potentials, indicating a state-dependent interaction. Tebuconazole caused a negative shift in the half-maximal inactivation voltage and delayed recovery from fast inactivation of INa. Also, it enhanced closed-state inactivation, exhibited use-dependent block in a voltage-dependent manner. Furthermore, Tebuconazole reduced the increase in late sodium current induced by the pyrethroid insecticide β-Cyfluthrin. These results suggest that Tebuconazole can interact with NaV1.5 channels and modulate INa. The observed effects may lead to decreased cardiac excitability through reduced INa availability, which could be a new mechanism of cardiotoxicity to be attributed to the fungicide.

Protective effect of solanesol in glucose-induced hepatocyte injury: Mechanistic insights on oxidative stress and mitochondrial preservation

Solanesol is a tetra sesquiterpene enol with various biological activities. Modern medical studies have confirmed that solanesol has the function of lipid antioxidation and scavenges free radicals. This study aimed to investigate the protective effect of solanesol against oxidative damage induced by high glucose on human normal hepatocytes (L-02 cells) and its possible mechanism. The results showed that solanesol could effectively improve the decrease of cell viability induced by high glucose, decrease the contents of alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) in the extracellular medium, increased the enzyme activities of glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px), superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), balanced the level of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in cells, inhibited lipid peroxidation of all kinds of biological membranes, and restored mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP). In addition, Solanesol also inhibited the expression of Keap1, promoted the nuclear translocation of Nrf2 by hydrogen bonding with Nrf2, and activated the expression of downstream antioxidant factors NQO1 and HO-1. Altogether, these findings suggest that solanesol may be a potential protectant against diabetic liver injury.

The widespread presence of triazole fungicides in greenhouse soils in Shandong Province, China: A systematic study on human health and ecological risk assessments

Triazole fungicides (TFs) are extensively used on greenhouse vegetables and are ubiquitously detected in the environment. However, the human health and ecological risks associated with the presence of TFs in the soil are unclear. In this study, ten widely used TFs were measured in 283 soil samples from vegetable greenhouses across Shandong Province, China, and their potential human health and ecological risks were assessed. Among all soil samples, difenoconazole, myclobutanil, triadimenol, and tebuconazole were the top detected TFs, with detection rates of 85.2-100%; these TFs had higher residues, with average concentrations of 5.47-23.8 μg/kg. Although most of the detectable TFs were present in low amounts, 99.3% of the samples were contaminated with 2-10 TFs. Human health risk assessment based on hazard quotient (HQ) and hazard index (HI) values indicated that TFs posed negligible non-cancer risks for both adults and children (HQ range, 5.33 × 10-10 to 2.38 × 10-5; HI range, 1.95 × 10-9 to 3.05 × 10-5, <1). Ecological risk assessment based on the toxicity exposure ratio (TER) and risk quotient (RQ) values indicated that difenoconazole was a potential risk factor for soil organisms (TERmax = 1 for Eisenia foetida, <5; RQmean = 1.19 and RQmax = 9.04, >1). Moreover, 84 of the 283 sites showed a high risk (RQsite range, 1.09-9.08, >1), and difenoconazole was the primary contributor to the overall risk. Considering their ubiquity and potential hazards, TFs should be continuously assessed and prioritized for pesticide risk management.

Ipconazole Induces Oxidative Stress, Cell Death, and Proinflammation in SH-SY5Y Cells

Ipconazole is an antifungal agrochemical widely used in agriculture against seed diseases of rice, vegetables, and other crops; due to its easy accumulation in the environment, it poses a hazard to human, animal, and environmental health. Therefore, we investigated the cytotoxic effect of ipconazole on SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells using cell viability tests (MTT), ROS production, caspase3/7 activity, and molecular assays of the biomarkers of cell death (Bax, Casp3, APAF1, BNIP3, and Bcl2); inflammasome (NLRP3, Casp1, and IL1β); inflammation (NFκB, TNFα, and IL6); and antioxidants (NRF2, SOD, and GPx). SH-SY5Y cells were exposed to ipconazole (1, 5, 10, 20, 50, and 100 µM) for 24 h. The ipconazole, in a dose-dependent manner, reduced cell viability and produced an IC₅₀ of 32.3 µM; it also produced an increase in ROS production and caspase3/7 enzyme activity in SH-SY5Y cells. In addition, ipconazole at 50 µM induced an overexpression of Bax, Casp3, APAF1, and BNIP3 (cell death genes); NLRP3, Casp1, and IL1B (inflammasome complex genes); and NFκB, TNFα, and IL6 (inflammation genes); it also reduced the expression of NRF2, SOD, and GPx (antioxidant genes). Our results show that ipconazole produces cytotoxic effects by reducing cell viability, generating oxidative stress, and inducing cell death in SH-SY5Y cells, so ipconazole exposure should be considered as a factor in the presentation of neurotoxicity or neurodegeneration.

Tebuconazole Induces ER-Stress-Mediated Cell Death in Bovine Mammary Epithelial Cell Lines

Tebuconazole (TEB) is a triazole fungicide used to increase crop production by controlling fungi, insects, and weeds. Despite their extensive use, people are concerned about the health risks associated with pesticides and fungicides. Numerous studies have defined the cellular toxicity of triazole groups in pesticides, but the mechanisms of TEB toxicity in bovine mammary gland epithelial cells (MAC-T cells) have not yet been studied. Damage to the mammary glands of dairy cows directly affects milk production. This study investigated the toxicological effects of TEB on MAC-T cells. We found that TEB decreases both cell viability and proliferation and activates apoptotic cell death via the upregulation of pro-apoptotic proteins, such as cleaved caspases 3 and 8 and BAX. TEB also induced endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress via the upregulation of Bip/GRP78; PDI; ATF4; CHOP; and ERO1-Lα. We found that TEB induced mitochondria-mediated apoptotic MAC-T cell death by activating ER stress. This cell damage eventually led to a dramatic reduction in the expression levels of the milk-protein-synthesis-related genes LGB; LALA; CSN1S1; CSN1S2; and CSNK in MAC-T cells. Our data suggest that the exposure of dairy cows to TEB may negatively affect milk production by damaging the mammary glands.

Low Dose of Carbendazim and Tebuconazole: Accumulation in Tissues and Effects on Hepatic Oxidative Stress in Mice

As two commonly used fungicides, carbendazim and tebuconazole are widely found in the environment and in foods. Studies have reported that these fungicides can induce hepatic oxidative stress and other health risks. Nevertheless, the influences of exposure to carbendazim and tebuconazole at their acceptable daily intake (ADI) doses on hepatic oxidative stress, and the residual distributions in mice remain unclear. To fill these gaps, ICR (CD-1) mice were exposed to carbendazim and tebuconazole at their ADI doses by oral administration for 4 weeks in this study. The results showed that tebuconazole accumulated primarily in the epididymal fat of mice (16.84 μg/kg), whereas no significant residues of carbendazim in the tissues were observed. In addition, exposure to ADI doses of tebuconazole significantly reduced liver coefficients and induced hepatic oxidative stress in mice, including elevating the levels of glutathione and malonaldehyde. However, no significant impacts were observed on the hepatic redox homeostasis in mice after exposure to carbendazim at its ADI dose. The results could be helpful for understanding the exposure risks of carbendazim and tebuconazole in terms of low doses and long term.

Stereoselective Toxicokinetic and Distribution Study on the Hexaconazole Enantiomers in Mice

Hexaconazole (Hex) has been widely used in agricultural products, and its residues may pose a potential risk to human health. However, the metabolic behavior of Hex enantiomers in mammal organisms is still unknown, which is important for evaluating the differences in their toxicity. In this study, the distribution of S-(+)- and R-(-)-Hex in mice was detected by an ultra-high performance liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS), and the mechanism differences in the toxicokinetic behavior were analyzed by molecular docking. Good linearities, accuracies, and precisions were achieved for S-(+)- and R-(-)-Hex, with recoveries of 88.7~104.2% and RSDs less than 9.45% in nine tissues of mice. This established method was then used to detect the toxicokinetic of Hex enantiomers in mice after oral administration within 96 h. The results showed that the half-lives of S-(+)- and R-(-)-Hex were 3.07 and 3.71 h in plasma. Hex was mainly accumulated in the liver, followed by the kidneys, brain, lungs, spleen, and heart. The enantiomeric fraction (EF) values of Hex enantiomers in most of the samples were below 1, indicating that S-(+)-Hex decreased faster than its antipode. The molecular docking showed that the binding of S-(+)-Hex with P450arom was much more stable than R-(-)-Hex, which verified the fact that S-(+)-Hex was prefer to decrease in most of the tissues. The results of this study could be helpful for further evaluating the potential toxic risk of Hex enantiomers and for the development and usage of its pure monomer.

Maternal Exposure to Acephate Caused Nephrotoxicity in Adult Offspring Rats Mediated by Excessive Autophagy Activation, Oxidative Stress Induction, and Altered Epithelial Sodium Channel and Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase Gene Expression

This study examined how maternal exposure to acephate-an organophosphate-based insecticide-affected the renal development in rat offspring during adulthood. Virgin female Wistar rats were randomly allocated to three groups: group 1 (control) received sterile water; groups 2 and 3 were intragastrically exposed to low (14 mg/kg) and high (28 mg/kg) doses of acephate from day 6 of pregnancy until delivery, respectively. Further, the offspring of the adult female rats were euthanized in postnatal week 8. Compared with the controls, the adult rat offspring with exposure to low and high doses of acephate exhibited elevated plasma creatinine and blood urea nitrogen levels. Additionally, immunofluorescence analysis revealed the upregulation of autophagic marker genes (Beclin-1 and LC-3) in the acephate-treated rat offspring, thereby suggesting the induction of an autophagic mechanism. Notably, the increased malondialdehyde level, decreased glutathione level, and decreased superoxide dismutase and catalase activities confirmed the ability of acephate to induce oxidative stress and apoptosis in the kidneys of the rat offspring. This may explain the renal histopathological injury detected using hematoxylin and eosin staining. Furthermore, a reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction revealed that the mRNA expression levels of the Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase and the epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) genes were significantly higher in the kidney of female offspring than that of controls owing to acephate toxicity. However, there was no significant effect of acephate on the expression of NHE3 in the treatment group compared with the control group. Overall, the present findings suggest that oxidative stress caused by prenatal exposure to acephate causes nephrotoxicity and histopathological alterations in adult rat offspring, likely by actions on renal ENaC and Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase genes as well as the autophagic markers Beclin-1 and LC-3.

Investigating the molecular mechanisms of glyoxal-induced cytotoxicity in human embryonic kidney cells: Insights from network toxicology and cell biology experiments

Glyoxal, a reactive carbonyl species, can be generated both endogenously (glucose metabolism) and exogenously (cigarette smoke and food system). Increasing evidence demonstrates that glyoxal exacerbates the development and progression of diabetic nephropathy, but the underlying mechanisms of glyoxal toxicity to human embryonic kidney (HEK293) cells remain unclear. In this work, the molecular mechanisms of glyoxal-induced cytotoxicity in HEK293 cells were explored with network toxicology and cell biology experiments. Network toxicology results showed that oxidative stress and advanced glycation end products (AGEs)/RAGE signaling pathways played a crucial role in glyoxal toxicity. Next, further validation was performed at the cellular level. Glyoxal activated the AGEs-RAGE signaling pathway, caused the increase of cellular ROS, and activated the p38MAPK and JNK signaling pathways, causing cellular oxidative stress. Furthermore, glyoxal caused the activation of the NF-κB signaling pathway and increased the expression of TGF-β1, indicating that glyoxal caused cellular inflammation. Moreover, glyoxal caused cellular DNA damage accompanied by the activation of DNA damage response pathways. Finally, the mitochondrial apoptosis pathway was activated. The results that obtained in cell biology were consistent with network toxicology, which corroborated each other and together indicated that glyoxal induced HEK293 cells damage via the process of oxidative stress, the AGEs-RAGE pathway, and their associated signaling pathways. This study provides the experimental basis for the cytotoxicity of glyoxal on HEK293 cells.

Lupeol inhibits pesticides induced hepatotoxicity via reducing oxidative stress and inflammatory markers in the rats

The present study was aimed at investigating the toxicity of various pesticides on rat liver. It also aimed to show whether this toxicity could be avoided using lupeol. Adult male Wistars albino rats were randomly divided into nine groups. Control groups were given saline, corn oil, and lupeol; pesticide groups were given malathion, chlorpyrifos, and tebuconazole; in the other three treatments, same doses of pesticides and lupeol were given to the rats for ten days. Histopathological examination showed severe degenerative changes in the pesticide groups. Serum AChE activities, liver GSH, total antioxidant capacity levels, AChE, CAT, SOD, GPx, GR, Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase, ARE, and PON were decreased, while serum TNF-α, liver LPO, HP, NO, AOPP, total oxidant status, ROS, and oxidative stress index levels as well as AST, ALT, ALP, GST, arginase and xanthine oxidase activities were increased in the pesticides administered groups. It was observed that the PCNA levels determined by the immunohistochemical method increased in the pesticide groups. Also, the results Raman spectroscopy suggest that the technique may be used to understand/have an insight into pesticide toxicity mechanisms. The administration of lupeol demonstrated a hepatoprotective effect against pesticide-induced toxicity.

The sesquiterpenoid valerenic acid protects neuronal cells from the detrimental effects of the fungicide benomyl on apoptosis and DNA oxidation

BACKGROUND

Valerenic acid (VA), a sesquiterpenoid of the plant Valeriana officinalis, has attracted attention of the research community due to its potential positive role against neurodegenerative diseases induced by chemicals. However, the relevant evidence in the literature is scarce. Therefore, this study aimed to examine the putative protective role of VA on the toxic effects of the fungicide benomyl on SH-SY5Y neural cells.

METHODS

Cell viability was determined via the MTT and NRU assays, DNA damage was assessed via comet assay and apoptosis was evaluated through the expression of relevant genes.

RESULTS

According to the results, exposure of the cells to benomyl enhanced viability inhibition and promoted DNA damage and apoptosis since the expression levels of the genes coding for MAPK8, NF-kB, Bax, Caspase-9 and Caspase-3 were increased. Treatment of the cells with VA ameliorated these effects in a concentration dependent manner.

CONCLUSION

It is concluded that the molecular mechanism through which benomyl exerts its toxic action appears to depend on DNA oxidation and apoptosis induction. Furthermore, VA, a plant-derived compound is a protective antioxidant against pesticide-induced toxicity. Therefore, herbs, extracts and compounds of plant origin could be used as nutritional supplements that back up the beneficial role of medicine in neurodegenerative diseases.

Tebuconazole Fungicide Induces Lipid Accumulation and Oxidative Stress in HepG2 Cells

Tebuconazole (TEB), a triazole fungicide, is frequently applied to agriculture for the increase of food production. Although TEB causes liver toxicity, its effects on cellular lipid accumulation are rarely investigated. Therefore, this study aimed to study the effects of TEB on lipid metabolism and accumulation in HepG2 cells. HepG2 cells were exposed to 0–320 µM TEB for 1–24 h. TEB (20–80 µM, 24 h)-treated cells showed lipid accumulation. Further, TEB (20–80 µM, 1–12 h) increased the nuclear translocation of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors and the expression of lipid uptake and oxidation-related markers such as cluster of differentiation 36, fatty acid transport protein (FATP) 2, FATP5, and carnitine palmitoyltransferase 1. Oxidative stress levels in TEB-treated cells (20–80 µM, 24 h) were higher, compared to those in the control. TEB (20–80 µM, 24 h) also induced the loss of mitochondrial membrane potential and lower levels of microsomal triglyceride transfer protein in the cells. Thus, TEB can induce lipid accumulation by altering the expression of lipid-metabolizing molecules and can therefore impair lipid metabolism. Our data suggest that human exposure to TEB may be a risk factor for non-alcoholic fatty liver disease.

Effects of Flutriafol Fungicide on the Lipid Accumulation in Human Liver Cells and Rat Liver

Flutriafol (FTF) is a triazole fungicide that can cause liver toxicity through the ingestion of its residues in food and water. However, little is known about the liver toxicity of FTF, particularly nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) in humans. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate whether FTF induces NAFLD in human liver cells and animal liver. HepG2 cells and Sprague Dawley (SD) rats were treated with FTF at doses of 0–640 µM for 24 h and 0–150 mg/kg bw/day for 28 days, respectively. FTF (80, 160, and 320 µM) treatment to cells induced lipid accumulation. FTF (80 and 160 µM)-treated cells had higher levels of cytochrome P450 enzymes and reactive oxygen species and increased mitochondrial membrane potential loss than the control. FTF also increased the mRNA levels of antioxidant enzymes through oxidative stress and nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 pathways in HepG2 cells. However, a higher level of FTF (320 µM) induced apoptosis. The treatment of SD rats with FTF (2.5–150 mg/kg bw/day) induced fatty infiltration in the liver by impairing liver metabolism and inducing apoptosis. Therefore, our data suggest that human exposure to FTF residues may be a risk factor for liver diseases, such as NAFLD.

Molecular fingerprints of conazoles via functional genomic profiling of Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Conazoles were designed to inhibit ergosterol biosynthesis. Conazoles have been widely used as agricultural fungicides and are frequently detected in the environment. Although conazoles have been reported to have adverse effects, such as potential carcinogenic effects, the underlying molecular mechanisms of toxicity remain unclear. Here, the molecular fingerprints of five conazoles (propiconazole (Pro), penconazole (Pen), tebuconazole (Teb), flusilazole (Flu) and epoxiconazole (Epo)) were assessed in Saccharomyces cerevisiae (yeast) via functional genome-wide knockout mutant profiling. A total of 169 (4.49%), 176 (4.67%), 198 (5.26%), 218 (5.79%) and 173 (4.59%) responsive genes were identified at three concentrations (IC₅₀, IC₂₀ and IC₁₀) of Pro, Pen, Teb, Flu and Epo, respectively. The five conazoles tended to have similar gene mutant fingerprints and toxicity mechanisms. "Ribosome" (sce03010) and "cytoplasmic translation" (GO: 0002181) were the common KEGG pathway and GO biological process term by gene set enrichment analysis of the responsive genes, which suggested that conazoles influenced protein synthesis. Conazoles also affected fatty acids synthesis because "biosynthesis of unsaturated fatty acids" pathway was among the top-ranked KEGG pathways. Moreover, two genes, YGR037C (acyl-CoA-binding protein) and YCR034W (fatty acid elongase), were key fingerprints of conazoles because they played vital roles in conazole-induced toxicity. Overall, the fingerprints derived from the yeast functional genomic screening provide an alternative approach to elucidate the molecular mechanisms of environmental pollutant conazoles.