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Mueller JL, Weyers I, Friederici AD, Männel C. Individual differences in auditory perception predict learning of non-adjacent tone sequences in 3-year-olds. Front Hum Neurosci 2024; 18:1358380. [PMID: 38638804 PMCID: PMC11024384 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2024.1358380] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2023] [Accepted: 03/15/2024] [Indexed: 04/20/2024] Open
Abstract
Auditory processing of speech and non-speech stimuli oftentimes involves the analysis and acquisition of non-adjacent sound patterns. Previous studies using speech material have demonstrated (i) children's early emerging ability to extract non-adjacent dependencies (NADs) and (ii) a relation between basic auditory perception and this ability. Yet, it is currently unclear whether children show similar sensitivities and similar perceptual influences for NADs in the non-linguistic domain. We conducted an event-related potential study with 3-year-old children using a sine-tone-based oddball task, which simultaneously tested for NAD learning and auditory perception by means of varying sound intensity. Standard stimuli were A × B sine-tone sequences, in which specific A elements predicted specific B elements after variable × elements. NAD deviants violated the dependency between A and B and intensity deviants were reduced in amplitude. Both elicited similar frontally distributed positivities, suggesting successful deviant detection. Crucially, there was a predictive relationship between the amplitude of the sound intensity discrimination effect and the amplitude of the NAD learning effect. These results are taken as evidence that NAD learning in the non-linguistic domain is functional in 3-year-olds and that basic auditory processes are related to the learning of higher-order auditory regularities also outside the linguistic domain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jutta L. Mueller
- Department of Linguistics, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
- Vienna Cognitive Science Research HUB, Vienna, Austria
| | - Ivonne Weyers
- Department of Linguistics, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Angela D. Friederici
- Department of Neuropsychology, Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Claudia Männel
- Department of Neuropsychology, Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences, Leipzig, Germany
- Department of Audiology and Phoniatrics, Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
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2
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Su WC, Colacot R, Ahmed N, Nguyen T, George T, Gandjbakhche A. The use of functional near-infrared spectroscopy in tracking neurodevelopmental trajectories in infants and children with or without developmental disorders: a systematic review. Front Psychiatry 2023; 14:1210000. [PMID: 37779610 PMCID: PMC10536152 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1210000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2023] [Accepted: 08/24/2023] [Indexed: 10/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Understanding the neurodevelopmental trajectories of infants and children is essential for the early identification of neurodevelopmental disorders, elucidating the neural mechanisms underlying the disorders, and predicting developmental outcomes. Functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (fNIRS) is an infant-friendly neuroimaging tool that enables the monitoring of cerebral hemodynamic responses from the neonatal period. Due to its advantages, fNIRS is a promising tool for studying neurodevelopmental trajectories. Although many researchers have used fNIRS to study neural development in infants/children and have reported important findings, there is a lack of synthesized evidence for using fNIRS to track neurodevelopmental trajectories in infants and children. The current systematic review summarized 84 original fNIRS studies and showed a general trend of age-related increase in network integration and segregation, interhemispheric connectivity, leftward asymmetry, and differences in phase oscillation during resting-state. Moreover, typically developing infants and children showed a developmental trend of more localized and differentiated activation when processing visual, auditory, and tactile information, suggesting more mature and specialized sensory networks. Later in life, children switched from recruiting bilateral auditory to a left-lateralized language circuit when processing social auditory and language information and showed increased prefrontal activation during executive functioning tasks. The developmental trajectories are different in children with developmental disorders, with infants at risk for autism spectrum disorder showing initial overconnectivity followed by underconnectivity during resting-state; and children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorders showing lower prefrontal cortex activation during executive functioning tasks compared to their typically developing peers throughout childhood. The current systematic review supports the use of fNIRS in tracking the neurodevelopmental trajectories in children. More longitudinal studies are needed to validate the neurodevelopmental trajectories and explore the use of these neurobiomarkers for the early identification of developmental disorders and in tracking the effects of interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Amir Gandjbakhche
- Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD), National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, United States
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3
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Martinez-Alvarez A, Gervain J, Koulaguina E, Pons F, de Diego-Balaguer R. Prosodic cues enhance infants' sensitivity to nonadjacent regularities. Sci Adv 2023; 9:eade4083. [PMID: 37043570 PMCID: PMC10096573 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.ade4083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2022] [Accepted: 03/09/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
In language, grammatical dependencies often hold between items that are not immediately adjacent to each other. Acquiring these nonadjacent dependencies is crucial for learning grammar. However, there are potentially infinitely many dependencies in the language input. How does the infant brain solve this computational learning problem? Here, we demonstrate that while rudimentary sensitivity to nonadjacent regularities may be present relatively early, robust and reliable learning can only be achieved when convergent statistical and perceptual, specifically prosodic cues, are both present, helping the infant brain detect the building blocks that form a nonadjacent dependency. This study contributes to our understanding of the neural foundations of rule learning that pave the way for language acquisition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Martinez-Alvarez
- Department of Social and Developmental Psychology, University of Padua, Padua, Italy
- Integrative Neuroscience and Cognition Center, Université Paris Cité and CNRS, Paris, France
- Department of Cognition, Development, and Educational Psychology, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Judit Gervain
- Department of Social and Developmental Psychology, University of Padua, Padua, Italy
- Integrative Neuroscience and Cognition Center, Université Paris Cité and CNRS, Paris, France
| | - Elena Koulaguina
- Cognitive Neuroimaging Unit, CNRS ERL 9003, INSERM U992, CEA, Université Paris-Saclay, NeuroSpin Center, Gif-sur-Yvette, Île-de-France, France
| | - Ferran Pons
- Department of Cognition, Development, and Educational Psychology, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- Institute of Neurosciences, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Ruth de Diego-Balaguer
- Department of Cognition, Development, and Educational Psychology, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- Institute of Neurosciences, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- Cognition and Brain Plasticity Unit, IDIBELL, L’Hospitalet de Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain
- ICREA, Barcelona, Spain
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Hakim U, Pinti P, Noah AJ, Zhang X, Burgess P, Hamilton A, Hirsch J, Tachtsidis I. Investigation of functional near-infrared spectroscopy signal quality and development of the hemodynamic phase correlation signal. Neurophotonics 2022; 9:025001. [PMID: 35599691 PMCID: PMC9116886 DOI: 10.1117/1.nph.9.2.025001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2021] [Accepted: 04/13/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Significance: There is a longstanding recommendation within the field of fNIRS to use oxygenated (HbO 2 ) and deoxygenated (HHb) hemoglobin when analyzing and interpreting results. Despite this, many fNIRS studies do focus onHbO 2 only. Previous work has shown thatHbO 2 on its own is susceptible to systemic interference and results may mostly reflect that rather than functional activation. Studies using bothHbO 2 and HHb to draw their conclusions do so with varying methods and can lead to discrepancies between studies. The combination ofHbO 2 and HHb has been recommended as a method to utilize both signals in analysis. Aim: We present the development of the hemodynamic phase correlation (HPC) signal to combineHbO 2 and HHb as recommended to utilize both signals in the analysis. We use synthetic and experimental data to evaluate how the HPC and current signals used for fNIRS analysis compare. Approach: About 18 synthetic datasets were formed using resting-state fNIRS data acquired from 16 channels over the frontal lobe. To simulate fNIRS data for a block-design task, we superimposed a synthetic task-related hemodynamic response to the resting state data. This data was used to develop an HPC-general linear model (GLM) framework. Experiments were conducted to investigate the performance of each signal at different SNR and to investigate the effect of false positives on the data. Performance was based on each signal's mean T -value across channels. Experimental data recorded from 128 participants across 134 channels during a finger-tapping task were used to investigate the performance of multiple signals [HbO 2 , HHb, HbT, HbD, correlation-based signal improvement (CBSI), and HPC] on real data. Signal performance was evaluated on its ability to localize activation to a specific region of interest. Results: Results from varying the SNR show that the HPC signal has the highest performance for high SNRs. The CBSI performed the best for medium-low SNR. The next analysis evaluated how false positives affect the signals. The analyses evaluating the effect of false positives showed that the HPC and CBSI signals reflect the effect of false positives onHbO 2 and HHb. The analysis of real experimental data revealed that the HPC and HHb signals provide localization to the primary motor cortex with the highest accuracy. Conclusions: We developed a new hemodynamic signal (HPC) with the potential to overcome the current limitations of usingHbO 2 and HHb separately. Our results suggest that the HPC signal provides comparable accuracy to HHb to localize functional activation while at the same time being more robust against false positives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Uzair Hakim
- University College London, Department of Medical Physics and Biomedical Engineering, London, United Kingdom
| | - Paola Pinti
- University College London, Department of Medical Physics and Biomedical Engineering, London, United Kingdom
- University of London, Birkbeck College, Centre for Brain and Cognitive Development, London, United Kingdom
| | - Adam J. Noah
- Yale University, Department of Neuroscience and Comparative Medicine, Yale School of Medicine, United States
| | - Xian Zhang
- Yale University, Department of Neuroscience and Comparative Medicine, Yale School of Medicine, United States
| | - Paul Burgess
- University College London, Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, London, United Kingdom
| | - Antonia Hamilton
- University College London, Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, London, United Kingdom
| | - Joy Hirsch
- University College London, Department of Medical Physics and Biomedical Engineering, London, United Kingdom
- Yale University, Department of Neuroscience and Comparative Medicine, Yale School of Medicine, United States
| | - Ilias Tachtsidis
- University College London, Department of Medical Physics and Biomedical Engineering, London, United Kingdom
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Ma X, Tao Y, Yang Y. Factors inducing complexities in musical embedded structure processing. Neuropsychologia 2022; 169:108153. [PMID: 35114217 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2022.108153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2021] [Revised: 12/31/2021] [Accepted: 01/06/2022] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
The organizational structure of music is similar to that found in language, involving a large number of complicated hierarchical and embedded structures. The factors inducing complexities and difficulties in embedded structure processing are important subjects of inquiry in areas of cognitive neuroscience, such as music and language domains. Enlightened by relevant linguistic theories, this study investigated the influence of dependency lengthening and structural shift on musical embedded sequences processing. Results showed that final chords in sequences with long dependence elicited larger ERAN and N5 under near-key shift conditions, while elicited larger ERAN and LPC under far-key shift conditions, when compared to the sequences with short dependence; Further, the final chords in sequences with far-key shift elicited larger N5 under short dependence conditions, while elicited larger LPC under long dependence conditions when compared to the sequences with near-key shift. These results indicate that both dependency lengthening and structure shift could be the factors inducing complexities and difficulties in the processing of musical embedded structures, and there might be some common mechanisms underlying the processing of center-embedded structure across music and language domains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xie Ma
- Faculty of Education, Yunnan Normal University, Kunming, China; Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China; Key Laboratory of Educational Informatization for Nationalities, Yunnan Normal University, Kunming, China
| | - Yun Tao
- Faculty of Education, Yunnan Normal University, Kunming, China; Key Laboratory of Educational Informatization for Nationalities, Yunnan Normal University, Kunming, China
| | - Yufang Yang
- Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.
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6
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Marimon M, Hofmann A, Veríssimo J, Männel C, Friederici AD, Höhle B, Wartenburger I. Children's Learning of Non-adjacent Dependencies Using a Web-Based Computer Game Setting. Front Psychol 2021; 12:734877. [PMID: 34803816 PMCID: PMC8595475 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.734877] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2021] [Accepted: 10/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Infants show impressive speech decoding abilities and detect acoustic regularities that highlight the syntactic relations of a language, often coded via non-adjacent dependencies (NADs, e.g., is singing). It has been claimed that infants learn NADs implicitly and associatively through passive listening and that there is a shift from effortless associative learning to a more controlled learning of NADs after the age of 2 years, potentially driven by the maturation of the prefrontal cortex. To investigate if older children are able to learn NADs, Lammertink et al. (2019) recently developed a word-monitoring serial reaction time (SRT) task and could show that 6-11-year-old children learned the NADs, as their reaction times (RTs) increased then they were presented with violated NADs. In the current study we adapted their experimental paradigm and tested NAD learning in a younger group of 52 children between the age of 4-8 years in a remote, web-based, game-like setting (whack-a-mole). Children were exposed to Italian phrases containing NADs and had to monitor the occurrence of a target syllable, which was the second element of the NAD. After exposure, children did a "Stem Completion" task in which they were presented with the first element of the NAD and had to choose the second element of the NAD to complete the stimuli. Our findings show that, despite large variability in the data, children aged 4-8 years are sensitive to NADs; they show the expected differences in r RTs in the SRT task and could transfer the NAD-rule in the Stem Completion task. We discuss these results with respect to the development of NAD dependency learning in childhood and the practical impact and limitations of collecting these data in a web-based setting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mireia Marimon
- Cognitive Sciences, Department of Linguistics, University of Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany
| | - Andrea Hofmann
- Cognitive Sciences, Department of Linguistics, University of Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany
- Early Childhood Education Research, University of Applied Sciences, Potsdam, Germany
| | - João Veríssimo
- Cognitive Sciences, Department of Linguistics, University of Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany
- School of Arts and Humanities, University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Claudia Männel
- Department of Neuropsychology, Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences, Leipzig, Germany
- Department of Audiology and Phoniatrics, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Angela D Friederici
- Department of Neuropsychology, Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Barbara Höhle
- Cognitive Sciences, Department of Linguistics, University of Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany
| | - Isabell Wartenburger
- Cognitive Sciences, Department of Linguistics, University of Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany
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7
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Abstract
Seven month old infants can learn simple repetition patterns, such as we-fo-we, and generalize the rules to sequences of new syllables, such as ga-ti-ga. However, repetition rule learning in visual sequences seems more challenging, leading some researchers to claim that this type of rule learning applies preferentially to communicative stimuli. Here we demonstrate that 9-month-old infants can learn repetition rules in sequences of non-communicative dynamic human actions. We also show that when primed with these non-adjacent repetition patterns, infants can learn non-adjacent dependencies that involve memorizing the dependencies between specific human actions-patterns that prior research has shown to be difficult for infants in the visual domain and in speech. We discuss several possible mechanisms that account for the apparent advantage stimuli involving human action sequences has over other kinds of stimuli in supporting non-adjacent dependency learning. We also discuss possible implications for theories of language acquisition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Helen Shiyang Lu
- Department of Psychology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States of America
- * E-mail: (HSL); (THM)
| | - Toben H. Mintz
- Department of Psychology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States of America
- Department of Linguistics, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States of America
- * E-mail: (HSL); (THM)
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8
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Gemignani J, Gervain J. Comparing different pre-processing routines for infant fNIRS data. Dev Cogn Neurosci 2021; 48:100943. [PMID: 33735718 PMCID: PMC7985709 DOI: 10.1016/j.dcn.2021.100943] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2020] [Revised: 02/25/2021] [Accepted: 03/09/2021] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Five pre-processing pipelines were compared on synthetic and real infant NIRS data. Strict inclusion criteria limit the number of trials, but recover HRF accurately. Artifact correction retains larger amounts of data, but may lower HRF amplitude. No difference between applying pre-processing to optical density or concentration data.
Functional Near Infrared Spectroscopy (fNIRS) is an important neuroimaging technique in cognitive developmental neuroscience. Nevertheless, there is no general consensus yet about best pre-processing practices. This issue is highly relevant, especially since the development and variability of the infant hemodynamic response (HRF) is not fully known. Systematic comparisons between analysis methods are thus necessary. We investigated the performance of five different pipelines, selected on the basis of a systematic search of the infant NIRS literature, in two experiments. In Experiment 1, we used synthetic data to compare the recovered HRFs with the true HRF and to assess the robustness of each method against increasing levels of noise. In Experiment 2, we analyzed experimental data from a published study, which assessed the neural correlates of artificial grammar processing in newborns. We found that with motion artifact correction (as opposed to rejection) a larger number of trials were retained, but HRF amplitude was often strongly reduced. By contrast, artifact rejection resulted in a high exclusion rate but preserved adequately the characteristics of the HRF. We also found that the performance of all pipelines declined as the noise increased, but significantly less so than if no pre-processing was applied. Finally, we found no difference between running the pre-processing on optical density or concentration change data. These results suggest that pre-processing should thus be optimized as a function of the specific quality issues a give dataset exhibits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica Gemignani
- Department of Developmental Psychology and Socialisation, University of Padova, Padova, Italy; Integrative Neuroscience and Cognition Center, CNRS & University of Paris, Paris, France.
| | - Judit Gervain
- Department of Developmental Psychology and Socialisation, University of Padova, Padova, Italy; Integrative Neuroscience and Cognition Center, CNRS & University of Paris, Paris, France
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9
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Silver E, Korja R, Mainela-Arnold E, Pulli EP, Saukko E, Nolvi S, Kataja EL, Karlsson L, Karlsson H, Tuulari JJ. A systematic review of MRI studies of language development from birth to 2 years of age. Dev Neurobiol 2020; 81:63-75. [PMID: 33220156 DOI: 10.1002/dneu.22792] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2020] [Revised: 10/28/2020] [Accepted: 11/12/2020] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Neurocognitive functions supporting language development start to develop well before first words are spoken during the first years of life. This process coincides with the initial growth spurt of the brain. While the core components of the language network are well characterized in adults and children, the initial neural correlates of language skills are still relatively unknown. We reviewed 10 studies identified via a systematic search that combined magnetic resonance imaging and language-related measures in healthy infants from birth to 2 years of age. We aimed to describe the current knowledge as well as point out viable future directions for similar studies. Expectedly, the implicated cerebral areas included many established components of the language networks, including frontal and temporal regions. A volumetric leftward asymmetry of the brain was suggested as a determinant of language skills, yet with marked interindividual variation. Overall, temporal and frontal brain volumes associated positively with language skills. Positive associations were described between the maturation of language related white matter tracts and language skills. The language networks showed adult-like structural similarities already in neonates, with weaker asymmetry compared to adults. In summary, we found some evidence that the language circuit described in older age groups is also associated to language skills during the first 2 years of life. However, across the reviewed studies there were no systematic neural correlates of language skills, which is partly explained by a modest number of studies, scattered representation of ages in measurements and the variance in the used methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eero Silver
- FinnBrain Birth Cohort Study, Turku Brain and Mind Center, Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Turku, Turku, Finland.,Department of Psychiatry, University of Turku and Turku University Hospital, Turku, Finland
| | - Riikka Korja
- FinnBrain Birth Cohort Study, Turku Brain and Mind Center, Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Turku, Turku, Finland.,Department of Psychology and Speech-Language Pathology, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
| | - Elina Mainela-Arnold
- FinnBrain Birth Cohort Study, Turku Brain and Mind Center, Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Turku, Turku, Finland.,Department of Psychology and Speech-Language Pathology, University of Turku, Turku, Finland.,Department of Speech Language Pathology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
| | - Elmo P Pulli
- FinnBrain Birth Cohort Study, Turku Brain and Mind Center, Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Turku, Turku, Finland.,Department of Psychiatry, University of Turku and Turku University Hospital, Turku, Finland
| | - Ekaterina Saukko
- Department of Radiology, University of Turku and Turku University Hospital, Turku, Finland
| | - Saara Nolvi
- FinnBrain Birth Cohort Study, Turku Brain and Mind Center, Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Turku, Turku, Finland.,Turku Institute for Advanced Studies, Department of Psychology and Speech-Language Pathology, University of Turku, Turku, Finland.,Department of Medical Psychology, Charité Universitätsmedizin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Eeva-Leena Kataja
- FinnBrain Birth Cohort Study, Turku Brain and Mind Center, Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Turku, Turku, Finland.,Department of Psychology and Speech-Language Pathology, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
| | - Linnea Karlsson
- FinnBrain Birth Cohort Study, Turku Brain and Mind Center, Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Turku, Turku, Finland.,Department of Child Psychiatry, University of Turku and Turku University Hospital, Turku, Finland.,Centre for Population Health Research, Turku University Hospital and University of Turku, Turku, Finland
| | - Hasse Karlsson
- FinnBrain Birth Cohort Study, Turku Brain and Mind Center, Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Turku, Turku, Finland.,Department of Psychiatry, University of Turku and Turku University Hospital, Turku, Finland.,Centre for Population Health Research, Turku University Hospital and University of Turku, Turku, Finland
| | - Jetro J Tuulari
- FinnBrain Birth Cohort Study, Turku Brain and Mind Center, Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Turku, Turku, Finland.,Department of Psychiatry, University of Turku and Turku University Hospital, Turku, Finland.,Department of Psychiatry, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK.,Turku Collegium for Science and Medicine, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
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