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Reichert J, del Pozo B, Taylor B. Police Stigma toward People with Opioid Use Disorder: A Study of Illinois Officers. Subst Use Misuse 2023; 58:1493-1504. [PMID: 37365862 PMCID: PMC10529704 DOI: 10.1080/10826084.2023.2227698] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/28/2023]
Abstract
BackgroundFatal opioid overdoses continue to break historical records. Stigma toward people with opioid use disorder (OUD) can negatively impact treatment access, retention, and recovery. Attitudes and beliefs of police officers can profoundly shape key discretionary decisions. Therefore, we examined police officer views indicating stigma toward those with OUD.ObjectivesWe administered an online survey to select Illinois police departments using a stratified random sampling strategy with a final sample of 248 officers from 27 police departments. We asked officers questions measuring stigmatizing attitudes toward people with OUD including distrust, blame, shame, and fear. We found officers held somewhat stigmatizing views with a mean score of 4.0 on a scale of 1 (least stigmatic) to 6 (most stigmatic).ResultsRegression results showed certain officer characteristics were associated with more stigmatizing attitudes of blaming and distrust of those with OUD, including gender, education, race, years in policing, and department size.Conclusions/ImportanceSince most officers in the sample held at least some stigmatizing views toward people with OUD, this may impede the feasibility and acceptability of criminal justice interventions meant to improve behavioral health, such as police deflection programs that link people who use drugs to treatment in lieu of arrest. Departments should offer officer training and education on substance use disorders, treatment for addiction, and the potential for a person's recovery. Training should allow officers to hear directly from, or learn about, personal experiences of people who use drugs and have been in recovery, as this type of interaction has been shown to reduce stigma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica Reichert
- Center for Justice Research and Evaluation, Illinois Criminal Justice Information Authority, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Brandon del Pozo
- Division of General Internal Medicine, The Warren Alpert Medical School of Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island, USA
- The Miriam Hospital, The Warren Alpert Medical School of Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island, USA
| | - Bruce Taylor
- NORC at the University of Chicago, Public Health Department, Chicago, Illinois, USA
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Blais E, Brisson J, Gagnon F, Lemay SA. Diverting people who use drugs from the criminal justice system: A systematic review of police-based diversion measures. Int J Drug Policy 2022; 105:103697. [PMID: 35489210 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugpo.2022.103697] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2021] [Revised: 04/04/2022] [Accepted: 04/07/2022] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Previous reviews of the effectiveness of measures to divert those who use drugs from the criminal justice system have focused mainly on post-conviction or post-sentence programs and report mixed results. The present systematic review synthesizes evidence on the effectiveness of police-based diversion measures in reducing criminal offenses and other harms related to drug use and then summarizes evidence from qualitative studies to identify facilitators and barriers associated with the implementation of such measures. METHODS Eight databases were searched to find evaluations of police-based diversion measures for drug-related offenders. Twenty-seven studies were identified. The vote-count method and the Maryland Scientific Method Scale were used to assess the impact of police-based diversion measures. Themes related to barriers or conditions facilitating the implementation of these measures were extracted from qualitative studies. RESULTS Evidence from quantitative studies indicates that in general police-based diversion measures are effective in preventing criminal offending and show promising results for improving participants' health and diminishing social costs as well as costs associated with processing drug-related offenses. There was insufficient evidence to draw conclusions about the effect of police-based diversion measures on drug use, drug accessibility, or changes in participants' socioeconomic conditions. Findings from qualitative studies suggest that program acceptance by police officers, constructive intersectoral collaboration, clear eligibility criteria, and timely access to services seem to facilitate the implementation and delivery of police-based diversion measures. CONCLUSION Police-based diversion measures can be effective in preventing drug-related criminal offenses and harm. Additional research is needed to evaluate their effect on participants' socioeconomic conditions and drug use as well as drug accessibility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Etienne Blais
- School of Criminology - Université de Montréal, International Centre for Comparative Criminology, 3150, rue Jean-Brillant, Room C-4117, Montreal Quebec, H3T 1N8, Canada.
| | - Jacinthe Brisson
- Quebec National Institute of Public Health, 190 Cremazie boulevard East, Montreal Quebec, H2P 1E2, Canada
| | - François Gagnon
- Quebec National Institute of Public Health, 190 Cremazie boulevard East, Montreal Quebec, H2P 1E2, Canada
| | - Sophie-Anne Lemay
- Quebec National Institute of Public Health, 190 Cremazie boulevard East, Montreal Quebec, H2P 1E2, Canada
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McGovern R, Homer T, Kaner E, Smart D, Ternent L. Preferences for Delivering Brief Alcohol Intervention to Risky Drinking Parents in Children's Social Care: A Discrete Choice Experiment. Alcohol Alcohol 2022; 57:615-621. [PMID: 35443044 PMCID: PMC9465525 DOI: 10.1093/alcalc/agac018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2022] [Revised: 03/14/2022] [Accepted: 03/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
AIMS Many parents in contact with children's social care services misuse alcohol however do not meet the threshold for specialist alcohol treatment, and typically do not receive appropriate support for their needs. Brief alcohol interventions have been found to be effective in healthcare settings, however, it is unknown whether the brief intervention structure delivered within health settings would transfer well into children's social care. This paper aims to examine the characteristics of brief intervention for alcohol misusing parents which social care practitioners consider to be important and acceptable to implement in this sector. METHODS We assessed preferences for, and acceptability of, brief alcohol intervention with parents in contact with children's social care using a discrete choice experiment. We recruited 205 children's social care practitioners from London and the North East of England. Data were analysed using mixed logit which accounted for repeated responses. FINDINGS Six attributes showed statistically significant coefficients, suggesting that a brief intervention with these attributes would encourage implementation. These were: level of alcohol-related risk targeted; intervention recipient; timing of intervention; duration of sessions; number of sessions and intervention structure. The attribute of most importance identified based on the attribute with the largest coefficient in the conditional logit model was risk level. CONCLUSIONS Brief alcohol interventions delivered to parents in social care should focus on the impact upon children and the wider family, they should be a flexible part of on-going casework and should be more intensive and less structured.
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Affiliation(s)
- R McGovern
- Population Health Sciences Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE2 4AX, UK
| | - T Homer
- Population Health Sciences Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE2 4AX, UK
| | - E Kaner
- Population Health Sciences Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE2 4AX, UK
| | - D Smart
- Population Health Sciences Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE2 4AX, UK
| | - L Ternent
- Population Health Sciences Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE2 4AX, UK
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Abstract
BACKGROUND To identify contextually-relevant strategies for reducing and eventually eliminating addiction, it is imperative to engage stakeholders that are most affected by drug abuse but typically left out of the conversation, such as adolescents. AIM The aim of this study was to collaborate with 45 adolescent stakeholders participating in a school-based research program to identify areas to address addiction. METHODS Guided by a modified version of the mixed-methods concept mapping approach, adolescents were asked to brainstorm and sort a list of statements about how to address addiction in their community. The data were then analyzed via multidimensional scaling and hierarchical cluster analysis. RESULTS The concept map identified eight clusters from 75 edited statements: policing/security (e.g., increase punishment for selling drugs), helping community (e.g., create more jobs), treatment (e.g., make treatments more affordable), increased awareness (e.g., identify and help at-risk youth), communication (e.g., more communication with people who are abusing drugs), increased understanding/education (e.g., online communities for people who are abusing drugs), clean up community (e.g., clean up abandoned houses) and prevent addiction (e.g., effectively deal with peer pressure). DISCUSSION These stakeholder-driven ideas are consistent with the socioecological framework of addressing substance use and add to the credibility and transferability of individual and systemic level approaches to reducing substance use in marginalized communities. CONCLUSION This study emphasizes the feasibility of engaging adolescents in the development of contextually-relevant addiction education, prevention, and treatment interventions in underserved communities.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Lisa M. Vaughn
- University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH, USA
- University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH, USA
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Anderson E, Shefner R, Koppel R, Megerian C, Frasso R. Experiences with the Philadelphia police assisted diversion program: A qualitative study. Int J Drug Policy 2022; 100:103521. [PMID: 34826788 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugpo.2021.103521] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2021] [Revised: 10/22/2021] [Accepted: 10/23/2021] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The U.S. relies far too heavily on punitive criminal justice strategies to address problems that are better prevented and resolved through social and health services. The resulting harms are especially large and longstanding for people trapped in the failed War on Drugs. Philadelphia launched a Police Assisted Diversion (PAD) program to address the highest rates of poverty, incarceration, and fatal overdose among large cities in the U.S. PAD enables police officers to connect people with supportive services in many instances that would otherwise result in arrest or through outreach when no crime is suspected. METHODS We conducted semi-structured interviews with 30 clients, 15 police officers, and 12 other personnel involved with the program. Data were gathered in 2019 and 2020 and analyzed using standard qualitative methods. RESULTS PAD represents a new less-punitive model for responding to illegal purchasing of drugs, possession of drugs, prostitution, and retail theft in Philadelphia. Clients reported mostly positive experiences with the program, identifying the primary benefits as avoided arrest and relational support from affiliated service providers. Police officers expressed support for the program in principle but skepticism about its effects in practice, questioning the quality of available services. Program personnel and police officers described multi-sectoral collaboration as essential to addressing frequent and diverse logistical challenges, including overly restrictive eligibility criteria, mistrust between police and service providers, and coordination across different neighborhoods. Finally, all three groups suggested that people can only benefit from service linkages when they are ready to engage and that inadequate access to resources like housing limits program effectiveness. CONCLUSIONS The PAD program is a promising public health intervention for diverting people away from punishment and towards services to address unmet social and health needs. But increasing investments in training and in other supportive services is essential to sustainable and transformational change.
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Del Pozo B, Sightes E, Goulka J, Ray B, Wood CA, Siddiqui S, Beletsky LA. Police discretion in encounters with people who use drugs: operationalizing the theory of planned behavior. Harm Reduct J 2021; 18:132. [PMID: 34915910 PMCID: PMC8675297 DOI: 10.1186/s12954-021-00583-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2021] [Accepted: 12/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Policing shapes the health risks of people who use drugs (PWUD), but little is understood about interventions that can align officer practices with PWUD health. This study deploys the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) to understand what influences police intentions to make discretionary referrals to treatment and harm reduction resources rather than arrest on less serious charges.
Methods On-line surveys integrating TPB constructs and adapting an instrument measuring police intentions to make mental health treatment referrals were completed by police employees in Indiana, Massachusetts, and Missouri. They also included items about stigma towards PWUD and attitudes and beliefs about opioid addiction, treatment, and recovery. Findings Across the sites, 259 respondents perceived control over their decision to arrest for misdemeanors (69%) and confiscate items such as syringes (56%). Beliefs about others’ approval of referrals to treatment, its ability to reduce future arrests, and to increase trust in police were associated with stated practices of nonarrest for drug and possession and making referrals (p ≤ .001), and nonarrest for syringe possession (p ≤ .05). Stigma a towards PWUD was negatively associated with stated practices of nonarrest (p ≤ .05). Respondents identified supervisors as having the most influence over use of discretion, seriousness of the offense as the most influential value, and attitude of the suspect as the most important situational factor. The 17 Likert scale items analyzed had a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.81. Conclusion The TPB offers untapped potential to better understand and modify police practices. In designing interventions to improve the health outcomes of police encounters with PWUD, further research should validate instruments that measure the relationship between these variables and discretionary intentions, and that measure role-relevant police stigma towards PWUD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brandon Del Pozo
- The Miriam Hospital/Warren Alpert Medical School of Brown University, 164 Summit Avenue, Providence, RI, 02906, USA.
| | - Emily Sightes
- Center for Behavioral Health and Justice, School of Social Work, Wayne State University, Detroit, USA
| | - Jeremiah Goulka
- Health in Justice Action Lab, Northeastern University, Boston, USA
| | - Brad Ray
- Center for Behavioral Health and Justice, School of Social Work, Wayne State University, Detroit, USA
| | - Claire A Wood
- Missouri Institute of Mental Health, University of Missouri St Louis, St. Louis, USA
| | - Saad Siddiqui
- Missouri Institute of Mental Health, University of Missouri St Louis, St. Louis, USA
| | - Leo A Beletsky
- School of Law and Bouve College of Health Sciences, Northeastern University, Boston, USA
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Olgin GK, Bórquez A, Baker P, Clairgue E, Morales M, Bañuelos A, Arredondo J, Harvey-Vera A, Strathdee S, Beletsky L, Cepeda JA. Preferences and acceptability of law enforcement initiated referrals for people who inject drugs: a mixed methods analysis. Subst Abuse Treat Prev Policy 2020; 15:75. [PMID: 33008431 PMCID: PMC7530855 DOI: 10.1186/s13011-020-00319-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Law enforcement officers (LEOs) come into frequent contact with people who inject drugs (PWID). Through service referrals, LEOs may facilitate PWID engagement in harm reduction, substance use treatment, and other health and supportive services. Little is known about PWID and LEO attitudes and concerns about service referrals, however. The objective of this mixed-methods study was to examine the alignment of service referral preferences and acceptability among PWID and LEOs in Tijuana, Mexico. METHODS We assessed service referral preferences and perceived likelihood of participation in health and social services, integrating data from structured questionnaires with 280 PWID and 306 LEOs, contextualized by semi-structured interviews and focus groups with 15 PWID and 17 LEOs enrolled in two parallel longitudinal cohorts in Tijuana, Mexico. RESULTS Among potential service referral options, both PWID (78%) and LEOs (88%) most frequently cited assistance with drug- and alcohol-use disorders. Over half of PWID and LEOs supported including harm reduction services such as syringe service programs, overdose prevention, and HIV testing. The majority of PWID supported LEO referrals to programs that addressed basic structural needs (e.g. personal care [62%], food assistance [61%], housing assistance [58%]). However, the proportion of LEOs (30-45%) who endorsed these service referrals was significantly lower (p < 0.01). Regarding referral acceptability, 71% of PWID reported they would be very likely or somewhat likely to make use of a referral compared to 94% of LEOs reporting that they thought PWID would always or sometimes utilize them. These results were echoed in the qualitative analysis, although practical barriers to referrals emerged, whereby PWID were less optimistic that they would utilize referrals compared to LEOs. CONCLUSIONS We identified strong support for LEO service referrals among both LEO and PWID respondents, with the highest preference for substance use treatment. LEO referral programs offer opportunities to deflect PWID contact with carceral systems while facilitating access to health and social services. However, appropriate investments and political will are needed to develop an evidence-based (integrated) service infrastructure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriella K Olgin
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Global Public Health, University of California,San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Annick Bórquez
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Global Public Health, University of California,San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Pieter Baker
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Global Public Health, University of California,San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
- Graduate School of Public Health, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA, USA
| | - Erika Clairgue
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Global Public Health, University of California,San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Mario Morales
- School of Government and Public Policy, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - Arnulfo Bañuelos
- Department of Planning and Special Projects, Secretaría de Seguridad Pública Municipal, Tijuana, Mexico
| | - Jaime Arredondo
- Centro de Investigación y Docencia Económica, Aguascalientes, Mexico
| | - Alicia Harvey-Vera
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Global Public Health, University of California,San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Steffanie Strathdee
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Global Public Health, University of California,San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Leo Beletsky
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Global Public Health, University of California,San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
- School of Law and Bouve College of Health Sciences, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Javier A Cepeda
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Global Public Health, University of California,San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA.
- Department of Epidemiology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA.
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Yatsco AJ, Garza RD, Champagne-Langabeer T, Langabeer JR. Alternatives to Arrest for Illicit Opioid Use: A Joint Criminal Justice and Healthcare Treatment Collaboration. Subst Abuse 2020; 14:1178221820953390. [PMID: 32943871 PMCID: PMC7466893 DOI: 10.1177/1178221820953390] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2020] [Accepted: 08/06/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Opioid overdoses continue to be a leading cause of death in the US. This public health crisis warrants innovative responses to help prevent fatal overdose. There is continued advocacy for collaborations between public health partners to create joint responses. The high correlation between persons with opioid use disorder who have a history of involvement in the criminal justice system is widely recognized, and allows for treatment intervention opportunities. Law enforcement-led treatment initiatives are still relatively new, with a few sparse early programs emerging almost a decade ago and only gaining popularity in the past few years. A lack of published methodologies creates a gap in the knowledge of applied programs that are effective and can be duplicated. This article seeks to outline an interagency relationship between police and healthcare that illustrates arrest is not the only option that law enforcement may utilize when encountering persons who use illicit substances. Program methods of a joint initiative between law enforcement and healthcare in a large, metropolitan area will be reviewed, supplemented with law enforcement overdose data and statistics on law enforcement treatment referrals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea J Yatsco
- Houston Emergency Opioid Engagement System, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX, USA
| | | | - Tiffany Champagne-Langabeer
- Houston Emergency Opioid Engagement System, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX, USA
| | - James R Langabeer
- Houston Emergency Opioid Engagement System, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX, USA
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Hoke S, Baker K, Wenrich K. An assessment of officer attitudes toward the training and use of a pre-booking diversionary program. J Subst Abuse Treat 2020; 115:108036. [PMID: 32600624 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsat.2020.108036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2020] [Revised: 04/23/2020] [Accepted: 05/11/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The opioid epidemic in the United States has led police departments and other professionals to examine the current approach to drug enforcement. Different law enforcement diversionary programs, centered on public health approaches, have emerged. One such program, the "pre-booking" diversionary program, has been the subject of limited research. The current research assessed officer attitudes toward the training and execution of one such diversionary program in two urban police departments. Results from more than 100 surveys provide officers' perceptions of the training they received and their involvement in the program. We provide their detailed feedback and suggestions for law enforcement, outreach workers, and treatment program personnel in hopes that such diversionary programs will become widespread and effectively utilized in more communities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Scott Hoke
- Cedar Crest College, 100 College Avenue, 236 Curtis Hall, Allentown, PA 18104, United States.
| | - Kerrie Baker
- Cedar Crest College, 100 College Avenue, 122A Curtis Hall, Allentown, PA 18104, United States.
| | - Kristen Wenrich
- Bethlehem Health Bureau, 10 E. Church Street, Bethlehem, PA 18018, United States.
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Tran NK, Goldstein ND, Purtle J, Massey PM, Lankenau SE, Suder JS, Tabb LP. The heterogeneous effect of marijuana decriminalization policy on arrest rates in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 2009-2018. Drug Alcohol Depend 2020; 212:108058. [PMID: 32442749 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2020.108058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2019] [Revised: 05/05/2020] [Accepted: 05/05/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Marijuana decriminalization holds potential to reduce health inequities. However, limited attention has focused on assessing the impact of decriminalization policies across different populations. This study aims to determine the differential effect of a marijuana decriminalization policy change in Philadelphia, PA on marijuana arrests by demographic characteristics. METHODS Using a comparative interrupted time series design, we assessed whether the onset of marijuana decriminalization in Philadelphia County was associated with reduction in arrests rates from 2009 to 2018 compared to Dauphin County. Stratified models were used to describe the differential impact of decriminalization across different demographic populations. RESULTS Compared to Dauphin, the mean arrest rate for all marijuana-related crimes in Philadelphia declined by 19.9 per 100,000 residents (34.9% reduction), 17.1 per 100,000 residents (43.1% reduction) for possession, and 2.8 per 100,000 resident (15.9% reduction) for sales/manufacturing. Arrest rates also differed by demographic characteristics post-decriminalization. Notably, African Americans had a greater absolute/relative reduction in possession-based arrests than Whites. However, relative reductions for sales/manufacturing-based arrests was nearly 3 times lower for African Americans. Males had greater absolute/relative reduction for possession-based arrests, but lower relative reduction for sales/manufacturing-based arrests compared to females. There were no substantial absolute differences by age; however, youths (vs. adults) experienced higher relative reduction in arrest rates. CONCLUSIONS Findings suggest an absolute/relative reduction for possession-based arrests post-decriminalization; however, relative disparities in sales/manufacturing-based arrests, specifically for African Americans, increased. More consideration towards the heterogeneous effect of marijuana decriminalization are needed given the unintended harmful effects of arrest on already vulnerable populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nguyen K Tran
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Dornsife School of Public Health, Drexel University, 3215 Market St., Philadelphia, PA, 19104, United States.
| | - Neal D Goldstein
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Dornsife School of Public Health, Drexel University, 3215 Market St., Philadelphia, PA, 19104, United States
| | - Jonathan Purtle
- Department of Health Management and Policy, Dornsife School of Public Health, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Philip M Massey
- Department of Community Health and Prevention, Dornsife School of Public Health, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Stephen E Lankenau
- Department of Community Health and Prevention, Dornsife School of Public Health, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Joanna S Suder
- Civil Division, Delaware Department of Justice, Wilmington, DE, United States
| | - Loni P Tabb
- Department of Health Management and Policy, Dornsife School of Public Health, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA, United States
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