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González-Álvarez R, Rodríguez-Sánchez IP, Barrera-Saldaña HA. Gene Content and Coding Diversity of the Growth Hormone Loci of Apes. Genes (Basel) 2023; 14:genes14020241. [PMID: 36833167 PMCID: PMC9956162 DOI: 10.3390/genes14020241] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2022] [Revised: 01/07/2023] [Accepted: 01/11/2023] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
The growth hormone (GH) locus has experienced a dramatic evolution in primates, becoming multigenic and diverse in anthropoids. Despite sequence information from a vast number of primate species, it has remained unclear how the multigene family was favored. We compared the structure and composition of apes' GH loci as a prerequisite to understanding their origin and possible evolutionary role. These thorough analyses of the GH loci of the chimpanzee, gorilla, and orangutan were done by resorting to previously sequenced bacterial artificial chromosomes (BACs) harboring them, as well as to their respective genome projects data available in GenBank. The GH loci of modern man, Neanderthal, gibbon, and wild boar were retrieved from GenBank. Coding regions, regulatory elements, and repetitive sequences were identified and compared among species. The GH loci of all the analyzed species are flanked by the genes CD79B (5') and ICAM-1 (3'). In man, Neanderthal, and chimpanzee, the loci were integrated by five almost indistinguishable genes; however, in the former two, they rendered three different hormones, and in the latter, four different proteins were derived. Gorilla exhibited six genes, gibbon seven, and orangutan four. The sequences of the proximal promoters, enhancers, P-elements, and a locus control region (LCR) were highly conserved. The locus evolution might have implicated duplications of the ancestral pituitary gene (GH-N) and subsequent diversification of the copies, leading to the placental single GH-V gene and the multiple CSH genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rafael González-Álvarez
- Instituto Tecnológico de los Altos de Jalisco, Yahualica de González Gallo, Zapopan 47300, Mexico
| | - Irám Pablo Rodríguez-Sánchez
- Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Laboratorio de Fisiología Molecular y Estructural, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, San Nicolás de los Garza 66455, Mexico
| | - Hugo A. Barrera-Saldaña
- Vitagénesis, SA de CV/Innbiogem, Monterrey 64630, Mexico
- Facultades de Medicina y Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, San Nicolás de los Garza 66455, Mexico
- Correspondence:
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Garza-Rodríguez ML, Rodríguez-Sanchez IP, González-Álvarez R, Luna M, Burciaga-Flores CH, Alcorta-Nuñez F, Solis-Coronado O, Bautista de Lucio VM, Ramírez-Correa GA, Vidal-Gutiérrez O, Pérez-Ibave DC. Prolactin Expression in the Baboon ( Papio hamadryas) Eye. Animals (Basel) 2022; 12:2288. [PMID: 36078009 PMCID: PMC9455022 DOI: 10.3390/ani12172288] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2022] [Revised: 08/30/2022] [Accepted: 08/30/2022] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Prolactin (PRL) is a hormone expressed in lactotrophs cells of the pituitary gland in primates. Extra pituitary expression of PRL has been reported, including the eye; however, expression in the developing eye of primates is limited. The aim of the study was determining the expression of PRL and PRL receptor (PRLR) (mRNAs and proteins) in adult and fetal baboon (Papio hamadryas) ocular tissues. METHODS We analyzed PRL and PRLR in baboon eyes tissues by immunofluorescence. The mRNAs of PRL and PRLR were detected by RT-PCR, cDNA was cloned, and sequenced. Furthermore, we performed a phylogenetic analysis to identify the evolutionary forces that underlie the divergence of PRL and PRLR primate genes. RESULTS We observed the expression of PRL and PRLR (mRNAs and proteins) in all retinal cell lineages of fetal and adult baboon. PRL and PRLR fit the hypothesis of evolutionary purifying gene selection. CONCLUSIONS mRNA and protein of PRL and PRLR are expressed in fetal and adult baboon retinal tissue. PRL may trigger autocrine and paracrine-specific actions in retinal cell lines.
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Affiliation(s)
- María Lourdes Garza-Rodríguez
- Servicio de Oncología, Hospital Universitario “Dr. José Eleuterio González”, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, Monterrey 64440, Mexico
| | - Iram Pablo Rodríguez-Sanchez
- Laboratorio de Fisiología Molecular y Estructural, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, San Nicolás de los Garza 66455, Mexico
| | | | - Maricela Luna
- Departamento de Neurobiología Celular y Molecular, Instituto de Neurobiología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Juriquilla 76230, Mexico
| | - Carlos Horacio Burciaga-Flores
- Servicio de Oncología, Hospital Universitario “Dr. José Eleuterio González”, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, Monterrey 64440, Mexico
| | - Fernando Alcorta-Nuñez
- Servicio de Oncología, Hospital Universitario “Dr. José Eleuterio González”, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, Monterrey 64440, Mexico
| | - Orlando Solis-Coronado
- Servicio de Oncología, Hospital Universitario “Dr. José Eleuterio González”, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, Monterrey 64440, Mexico
- División de Anatomía Patológica, Hospital General “Dr. Manuel Gea González”, Secretaría de Salud, Ciudad de México 14080, Mexico
| | - Víctor Manuel Bautista de Lucio
- Departamento de Microbiología y Proteómica Ocular, Instituto de Oftalmología “Fundación de Asistencia Privada Conde de Valenciana”, Ciudad de México 06800, Mexico
| | - Genaro A. Ramírez-Correa
- Department of Molecular Science, University of Texas Health Rio Grande Valley, McAllen, TX 78550, USA
| | - Oscar Vidal-Gutiérrez
- Servicio de Oncología, Hospital Universitario “Dr. José Eleuterio González”, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, Monterrey 64440, Mexico
| | - Diana Cristina Pérez-Ibave
- Servicio de Oncología, Hospital Universitario “Dr. José Eleuterio González”, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, Monterrey 64440, Mexico
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Devesa J. The Complex World of Regulation of Pituitary Growth Hormone Secretion: The Role of Ghrelin, Klotho, and Nesfatins in It. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2021; 12:636403. [PMID: 33776931 PMCID: PMC7991839 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2021.636403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2020] [Accepted: 02/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
The classic concept of how pituitary GH is regulated by somatostatin and GHRH has changed in recent years, following the discovery of peripheral hormones involved in the regulation of energy homeostasis and mineral homeostasis. These hormones are ghrelin, nesfatins, and klotho. Ghrelin is an orexigenic hormone, released primarily by the gastric mucosa, although it is widely expressed in many different tissues, including the central nervous system and the pituitary. To be active, ghrelin must bind to an n-octanoyl group (n = 8, generally) on serine 3, forming acyl ghrelin which can then bind and activate a G-protein-coupled receptor leading to phospholipase C activation that induces the formation of inositol 1,4,5-triphosphate and diacylglycerol that produce an increase in cytosolic calcium that allows the release of GH. In addition to its direct action on somatotrophs, ghrelin co-localizes with GHRH in several neurons, facilitating its release by inhibiting somatostatin, and acts synergistically with GHRH stimulating the synthesis and secretion of pituitary GH. Gastric ghrelin production declines with age, as does GH. Klotho is an anti-aging agent, produced mainly in the kidneys, whose soluble circulating form directly induces GH secretion through the activation of ERK1/2 and inhibits the inhibitory effect that IGF-I exerts on GH. Children and adults with untreated GH-deficiency show reduced plasma levels of klotho, but treatment with GH restores them to normal values. Deletions or mutations of the Klotho gene affect GH production. Nesfatins 1 and 2 are satiety hormones, they inhibit food intake. They have been found in GH3 cell cultures where they significantly reduce the expression of gh mRNA and that of pituitary-specific positive transcription factor 1, consequently acting as inhibitors of GH production. This is a consequence of the down-regulation of the cAMP/PKA/CREB signaling pathway. Interestingly, nesfatins eliminate the strong positive effect that ghrelin has on GH synthesis and secretion. Throughout this review, we will attempt to broadly analyze the role of these hormones in the complex world of GH regulation, a world in which these hormones already play a very important role.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jesús Devesa
- Scientific and Medical Direction, Medical Center Foltra, Teo, Spain
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Abstract
Growth hormone (GH) is known to exert several roles during development and function of the nervous system. Initially, GH was exclusively considered a pituitary hormone that regulates body growth and metabolism, but now its alternative extrapituitary production and pleiotropic functions are widely accepted. Through excess and deficit models, the critical role of GH in nervous system development and adult brain function has been extensively demonstrated. Moreover, neurotrophic actions of GH in neural tissues include pro-survival effects, neuroprotection, axonal growth, synaptogenesis, neurogenesis and neuroregeneration. The positive effects of GH upon memory, behavior, mood, sensorimotor function and quality of life, clearly implicate a beneficial action in synaptic physiology. Experimental and clinical evidence about GH actions in synaptic function modulation, protection and restoration are revised in this chapter.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos G Martínez-Moreno
- Departamento de Neurobiología Celular y Molecular, Instituto de Neurobiología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Querétaro, México
| | - Carlos Arámburo
- Departamento de Neurobiología Celular y Molecular, Instituto de Neurobiología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Querétaro, México.
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Novales Flamarique I, Sayed Ahmed A, Cheng CL, Molday RS, Devlin RH. Growth hormone regulates opsin expression in the retina of a salmonid fish. J Neuroendocrinol 2019; 31:e12804. [PMID: 31630448 DOI: 10.1111/jne.12804] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2019] [Revised: 09/07/2019] [Accepted: 10/18/2019] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Colour vision relies on retinal photoreceptors that express a different predominant visual pigment protein (opsin). In several vertebrates, the primary opsin expressed by a photoreceptor can change throughout ontogeny, although the molecular factors that influence such regulation are poorly understood. One of these factors is thyroid hormone which, together with its receptors, modulates opsin expression in the retinas of multiple vertebrates including rodents and salmonid fishes. In the latter, thyroid hormone induces a switch in opsin expression from SWS1 (ultraviolet light sensitive) to SWS2 (short wavelength or blue light sensitive) in the single cone photoreceptors of the retina. The actions of other hormones on opsin expression have not been investigated. In the present study, we used a transgenic strain of coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kitsutch) with enhanced levels of circulating growth hormone compared to that of wild siblings to assess the effects of this hormone on the SWS1 to SWS2 opsin switch. Transgenic fish showed a developmentally accelerated opsin switch compared to size-matched controls as assessed by immunohistological and in situ hybridisation labelling of photoreceptors and by quantification of transcripts using quantitative polymerase chain reaction. This accelerated switch led to a different spectral sensitivity maximum, under a middle to long wavelength adapting background, from ultraviolet (λmax ~ 380 nm) in controls to short wavelengths (λmax ~ 430 nm) in transgenics, demonstrating altered colour vision. The effects of growth hormone over-expression were independent of circulating levels of thyroid hormone (triiodothyronine), the hormone typically associated with opsin switches in vertebrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Inigo Novales Flamarique
- Department of Biological Sciences, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC, Canada
- Department of Biology, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC, Canada
| | - Ahmed Sayed Ahmed
- Department of Biological Sciences, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC, Canada
| | - Christiana L Cheng
- Department of Biological Sciences, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC, Canada
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Robert S Molday
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
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Cervia D, Catalani E, Casini G. Neuroprotective Peptides in Retinal Disease. J Clin Med 2019; 8:E1146. [PMID: 31374938 DOI: 10.3390/jcm8081146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2019] [Revised: 07/26/2019] [Accepted: 07/31/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
In the pathogenesis of many disorders, neuronal death plays a key role. It is now assumed that neurodegeneration is caused by multiple and somewhat converging/overlapping death mechanisms, and that neurons are sensitive to unique death styles. In this respect, major advances in the knowledge of different types, mechanisms, and roles of neurodegeneration are crucial to restore the neuronal functions involved in neuroprotection. Several novel concepts have emerged recently, suggesting that the modulation of the neuropeptide system may provide an entirely new set of pharmacological approaches. Neuropeptides and their receptors are expressed widely in mammalian retinas, where they exert neuromodulatory functions including the processing of visual information. In multiple models of retinal diseases, different peptidergic substances play neuroprotective actions. Herein, we describe the novel advances on the protective roles of neuropeptides in the retina. In particular, we focus on the mechanisms by which peptides affect neuronal death/survival and the vascular lesions commonly associated with retinal neurodegenerative pathologies. The goal is to highlight the therapeutic potential of neuropeptide systems as neuroprotectants in retinal diseases.
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Pérez-Ibave DC, Garza-Rodríguez ML, Pérez-Maya AA, Rodríguez-Sánchez IP, Luna-Muñoz M, Martínez-Moreno CG, Arámburo-de la Hoz C, Mohamed-Noriega J, Mohamed-Noriega K, Mohamed-Hamsho J, Bautista-De Lucío VM, Barrera-Saldaña HA. Expression of growth hormone and growth hormone receptor genes in human eye tissues. Exp Eye Res 2019; 181:61-71. [PMID: 30633923 DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.01.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2018] [Revised: 12/27/2018] [Accepted: 01/07/2019] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
In humans, the polygenic growth hormone (GH) locus is located on chromosome 17 and contributes with three types of proteins: pituitary GH which consists of at least two isoforms one of 22 kDa and the other of 20 kDa, placental GH, which also exhibits isoforms, and chorionic somatomammotropin hormone (CSH). While pituitary GH results from the expression of the GH-1 (GH-N) gene, placental GH is produced by the expression of the GH-2 (GH-V) gene and CSH is contributed by expression of the CSH-1 and CSH-2 genes. The location where GH-1 is expressed is the anterior pituitary and the rest of the genes in the locus are expressed in placenta. On the other hand, expression and synthesis of GH in extra-pituitary tissues, including the eye, has been recently described. However, the physiological role of GH in the eye has not yet been elucidated, although a possible neuroprotective role has been hypothesized. Thus, we analyzed GH-1, GH-2, CSH1/2, Pit-1, GHR, GHRH, GHRHR, SST, SSTR1, SSTR2, SSTR3, SSTR4, and SSTR5 to elucidate the expression and regulation of the GH locus in the human eye. Through qPCR analysis, we only found evidence of GH-1 expression in retina, choroid and trabecular meshwork; its transcript turned out to be the same as pituitary GH mRNA found in major species, and no splicing variants were detected. PIT1 was absent in all the ocular tissues implying an independent GH-1 expression mechanism. We found evidence of GHR in the cornea, choroid coat and retina. These results suggest autocrine and/or paracrine regulation, possibly exerted by GHRH and SSTs (since their mRNAs and receptors were found predominantly in retinal, choroidal and corneal tissues) since expression of both molecules was detected in different ocular tissues, as well as in the same tissues where GH-1 expression was confirmed. Our results add solid evidence about the existence of a regulatory local system for GH expression and release in the human eye.
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Bermea KC, Rodríguez-García A, Tsin A, Barrera-Saldaña HA. Somatolactogens and diabetic retinopathy. Growth Horm IGF Res 2018; 41:42-47. [PMID: 29452885 DOI: 10.1016/j.ghir.2018.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2017] [Revised: 01/31/2018] [Accepted: 02/04/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
IMPORTANCE Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is one of the most common of all diabetic complications. The number of people with DR in the United States is expected to increase to 16 million by 2050. DR is the leading cause of blindness among working-age adults in many different countries, including the United States. In later DR stages, neovascularization is associated with extensive retinal capillary non-perfusion and vitreo-proliferation leading to retinal detachment. This neovascularization is orchestrated by an imbalance of growth factors in the retina from which somatolactogens (pituitary growth hormone, GH-N; placental growth hormone, GH-V; prolactin, PRL; and placental lactogen, PL, also referred as chorionic somatomammotropin, CSH), may play an important role. OBSERVATIONS Somatolactogens are a group of hormones that share many structural and functional features. They are important for physiological changes in pregnancy, for adequate development of the fetus, and in the case of GH-N, for promoting growth after birth. GH-N is synthesized by the anterior pituitary, GH-V and PL are secreted by the placenta, whereas, PRL is synthesized by the anterior pituitary and uterine decidua. However, in recent years the expression of GH-N and PRL and their receptors have been detected in other tissues including the retina, acting as neuroprotective and pro-angiogenic agents. The relationship of GH-N and diabetic retinopathy (DR) was established many years ago when it was observed that its deficiency was related to regression of DR while an increase in serum levels of GH-N, GH-V, and PL promoted DR. While more studies are needed to define the potential implications of GH-V and PL in DR pathogenesis, it has been demonstrated that GH-N and PRL participate in DR by enhancing neovascularization. Some PRL isoforms, however, have shown an anti-angiogenic activity rather than pro-angiogenesis and appears to be PRL's main role in the regulation of retinal vasculature. CONCLUSIONS Somatolactogens are a group of hormones with a significant role in neuroprotection and angiogenesis regulation in the eye. Understanding the mechanisms of angiogenesis regulation by somatolactogens will potentially lead to the development of new drugs for DR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin Christian Bermea
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, School of Medicine, The University of Texas Rio Grande Valley, 1210 W Schunior St., Edinburg, TX 78541, United States
| | - Alejandro Rodríguez-García
- Institute of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, Tecnológico de Monterrey, Escuela de Medicina y Ciencias de la Salud, Av. Ignacio Morones Prieto 3000 Poniente, Los Doctores, 64710 Monterrey, NL, Mexico
| | - Andrew Tsin
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, School of Medicine, The University of Texas Rio Grande Valley, 1210 W Schunior St., Edinburg, TX 78541, United States
| | - Hugo Alberto Barrera-Saldaña
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, School of Medicine, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, Av. Madero Col. Mitras Centro S/N, Monterrey, NL 64460, Mexico; TecSalud del Tecnológico de Monterrey, Centro Médico Zambrano-Hellion, Batallón San Patricio 112, Real de San Agustín, 66278 San Pedro Garza García, Nuevo León, Mexico; Vitagénesis, SA de CV. Blvd, Puerta del Sol #1005, Colinas de San Jerónimo, Monterrey, NL 64630, Mexico.
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