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de Campos VS, Magalhães CF, da Rosa BG, dos Santos CM, Fragel-Madeira L, Figueiredo DP, Calaza KC, Adesse D. Maternal Toxoplasma gondii infection affects proliferation, differentiation and cell cycle regulation of retinal neural progenitor cells in mouse embryo. Front Cell Neurosci 2023; 17:1211446. [PMID: 37545879 PMCID: PMC10400775 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2023.1211446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2023] [Accepted: 06/29/2023] [Indexed: 08/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Toxoplasmosis affects one third of the world population and has the protozoan Toxoplasma gondii as etiological agent. Congenital toxoplasmosis (CT) can cause severe damage to the fetus, including miscarriages, intracranial calcification, hydrocephalus and retinochoroiditis. Severity of CT depends on the gestational period in which infection occurs, and alterations at the cellular level during retinal development have been reported. In this study, we proposed a mouse CT model to investigate the impact of infection on retinal development. Methods Pregnant females of pigmented C57BL/6 strain mice were infected intragastrically with two T. gondii cysts (ME49 strain) at embryonic day 10 (E10), and the offspring were analyzed at E18. Results Infected embryos had significantly smaller body sizes and weights than the PBS-treated controls, indicating that embryonic development was affected. In the retina, a significant increase in the number of Ki-67-positive cells (marker of proliferating cells) was found in the apical region of the NBL of infected mice compared to the control. Supporting this, cell cycle proteins Cyclin D3, Cdk6 and pChK2 were significantly altered in infected retinas. Interestingly, the immunohistochemical analysis showed a significant increase in the population of β-III-tubulin-positive cells, one of the earliest markers of neuronal differentiation. Conclusions Our data suggests that CT affects cell cycle progression in retinal progenitor cells, possibly inducing the arrest of these cells at G2/M phase. Such alterations could influence the differentiation, anticipating/increasing neuronal maturation, and therefore leading to abnormal retinal formation. Our model mimics important events observed in ocular CT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Viviane Souza de Campos
- Laboratório de Neurobiologia da Retina, Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niterói, Brazil
- Laboratório de Biologia Estrutural, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fiocruz, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Camila Feitosa Magalhães
- Laboratório de Neurobiologia da Retina, Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niterói, Brazil
| | - Barbara Gomes da Rosa
- Laboratório de Biologia Estrutural, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fiocruz, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | | | - Lucianne Fragel-Madeira
- Laboratório de Desenvolvimento e Regeneração Neural, Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niterói, Brazil
| | - Danniel Pereira Figueiredo
- Laboratório de Neurobiologia da Retina, Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niterói, Brazil
| | - Karin C. Calaza
- Laboratório de Neurobiologia da Retina, Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niterói, Brazil
| | - Daniel Adesse
- Laboratório de Biologia Estrutural, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fiocruz, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Miller School of Medicine, University of Miami, Miami, FL, United States
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Garweg JG, Kieffer F, Mandelbrot L, Peyron F, Wallon M. Long-Term Outcomes in Children with Congenital Toxoplasmosis-A Systematic Review. Pathogens 2022; 11:pathogens11101187. [PMID: 36297244 PMCID: PMC9610672 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens11101187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2022] [Revised: 10/10/2022] [Accepted: 10/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
Even in the absence of manifestations at birth, children with congenital toxoplasmosis (CT) may develop serious long-term sequelae later in life. This systematic review aims to present the current state of knowledge to base an informed decision on how to optimally manage these pregnancies and children. For this, a systematic literature search was performed on 28 July 2022 in PubMed, CENTRAL, ClinicalTrials.gov, Google Scholar and Scopus to identify all prospective and retrospective studies on congenital toxoplasmosis and its long-term outcomes that were evaluated by the authors. We included 31 research papers from several countries. Virulent parasite strains, low socioeconomic status and any delay of treatment seem to contribute to a worse outcome, whereas an early diagnosis of CT as a consequence of prenatal screening may be beneficial. The rate of ocular lesions in treated children increases over time to 30% in European and over 70% in South American children and can be considerably reduced by early treatment in the first year of life. After treatment, new neurological manifestations are not reported, while ocular recurrences are observed in more than 50% of patients, with a mild to moderate impact on quality of life in European cohorts when compared to a significantly reduced quality of life in the more severely affected South American children. Though CT is rare and less severe in Europe when compared with South America, antenatal screening is the only effective way to diagnose and treat affected individuals at the earliest possible time in order to reduce the burden of disease and achieve satisfying outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justus G. Garweg
- Swiss Eye Institute, Rotkreuz, and Uveitis Clinic, Berner Augenklinik, Zieglerstrasse 29, 3007 Bern, Switzerland
- Department of Ophthalmology, Inselspital, University Hospital, 3010 Bern, Switzerland
- Correspondence:
| | - François Kieffer
- Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, Hôpital Armand Trousseau, Service de Néonatologie, 75012 Paris, France
| | - Laurent Mandelbrot
- Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, Hôpital Louis-Mourier Service de Gynécologie-Obstétrique, 178 rue des Renouillers, 92700 Colombes, France
- Inserm IAME-U1137, 75000 Paris, France
| | - François Peyron
- Hospices Civils de Lyon, Hôpital de la Croix Rousse, Department of Parasitology and Medical Mycology, 69004 Lyon, France
| | - Martine Wallon
- Hospices Civils de Lyon, Hôpital de la Croix Rousse, Department of Parasitology and Medical Mycology, 69004 Lyon, France
- Walking Team, Centre for Research in Neuroscience in Lyon, 69500 Bron, France
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Li K, Feng X, Hikosaka K, Norose K. Murine Model of Primary Acquired Ocular Toxoplasmosis: Fluorescein Angiography and Multiplex Immune Mediator Profiles in the Aqueous Humor. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2021; 62:9. [PMID: 33683297 PMCID: PMC7960860 DOI: 10.1167/iovs.62.3.9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose To establish a murine model of primary acquired ocular toxoplasmosis (OT) and to investigate the immune mediator profiles in the aqueous humor (AH). Methods C57BL/6 mice were perorally infected with Toxoplasma gondii. The ocular fundus was observed, and fluorescein angiography (FA) was performed. The AH, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), and serum were collected before infection and at 28 days post-infection (dpi); the immune mediator levels in these samples were analyzed using multiplex bead assay. Results Fundus imaging revealed soft retinochoroidal lesions at 14 dpi; many of these lesions became harder by 28 dpi. FA abnormalities, such as leakage from retinal vessels and dilation and tortuosity of the retinal veins, were observed at 14 dpi. Nearly all these abnormalities resolved spontaneously at 28 dpi. In the AH, interferon-γ, interleukin (IL)-1α, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-10, IL-12(p40), IL-12(p70), CCL2/MCP-1, CCL3/MIP-1α, CCL4/MIP-1β, CCL5/RANTES, and CXCL1/KC levels increased after infection. All these molecules except IL-1α, IL-4, and IL-13 showed almost the same postinfection patterns in the CSF as they did in the AH. The tumor necrosis factor α, IL-4, and IL-5 levels in the AH and CSF of the T. gondii–infected mice were lower than those in the serum. The postinfection IL-1α, IL-6, CCL2/MCP-1, CCL4/MIP-1β, and granulocyte colony-stimulating factor levels in the AH were significantly higher than those in the CSF and serum. Conclusions A murine model of primary acquired OT induced via the natural infection route was established. This OT model allows detailed ophthalmologic, histopathologic, and immunologic evaluations of human OT. Investigation of AH immune modulators provides new insight into OT immunopathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kexin Li
- Department of Infection and Host Defense, Graduate School of Medicine, Chiba University, Inohana, Chuo-ku, Chiba, Japan
| | - Xue Feng
- Department of Infection and Host Defense, Graduate School of Medicine, Chiba University, Inohana, Chuo-ku, Chiba, Japan
| | - Kenji Hikosaka
- Department of Infection and Host Defense, Graduate School of Medicine, Chiba University, Inohana, Chuo-ku, Chiba, Japan
| | - Kazumi Norose
- Department of Infection and Host Defense, Graduate School of Medicine, Chiba University, Inohana, Chuo-ku, Chiba, Japan
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de Campos VS, Calaza KC, Adesse D. Implications of TORCH Diseases in Retinal Development-Special Focus on Congenital Toxoplasmosis. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2020; 10:585727. [PMID: 33194824 PMCID: PMC7649341 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2020.585727] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2020] [Accepted: 09/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
There are certain critical periods during pregnancy when the fetus is at high risk for exposure to teratogens. Some microorganisms, including Toxoplasma gondii, are known to exhibit teratogenic effects, interfering with fetal development and causing irreversible disturbances. T. gondii is an obligate intracellular parasite and the etiological agent of Toxoplasmosis, a zoonosis that affects one third of the world's population. Although congenital infection can cause severe fetal damage, the injury extension depends on the gestational period of infection, among other factors, like parasite genotype and host immunity. This parasite invades the Central Nervous System (CNS), forming tissue cysts, and can interfere with neurodevelopment, leading to frequent neurological abnormalities associated with T. gondii infection. Therefore, T. gondii is included in the TORCH complex of infectious diseases that may lead to neurological malformations (Toxoplasmosis, Others, Rubella, Cytomegalovirus, and Herpes). The retina is part of CNS, as it is derived from the diencephalon. Except for astrocytes and microglia, retinal cells originate from multipotent neural progenitors. After cell cycle exit, cells migrate to specific layers, undergo morphological and neurochemical differentiation, form synapses and establish their circuits. The retina is organized in nuclear layers intercalated by plexus, responsible for translating and preprocessing light stimuli and for sending this information to the brain visual nuclei for image perception. Ocular toxoplasmosis (OT) is a very debilitating condition and may present high severity in areas in which virulent strains are found. However, little is known about the effect of congenital infection on the biology of retinal progenitors/ immature cells and how this infection may affect the development of this tissue. In this context, this study reviews the effects that congenital infections may cause to the developing retina and the cellular and molecular aspects of these diseases, with special focus on congenital OT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Viviane Souza de Campos
- Laboratório de Neurobiologia da Retina, Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niteroi, Brazil
- Laboratório de Biologia Estrutural, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fiocruz, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Karin C. Calaza
- Laboratório de Neurobiologia da Retina, Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niteroi, Brazil
| | - Daniel Adesse
- Laboratório de Biologia Estrutural, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fiocruz, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
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Marcos AC, Siqueira M, Alvarez-Rosa L, Cascabulho CM, Waghabi MC, Barbosa HS, Adesse D, Stipursky J. Toxoplasma gondii infection impairs radial glia differentiation and its potential to modulate brain microvascular endothelial cell function in the cerebral cortex. Microvasc Res 2020; 131:104024. [PMID: 32502488 DOI: 10.1016/j.mvr.2020.104024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2019] [Revised: 04/30/2020] [Accepted: 05/08/2020] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Congenital toxoplasmosis is a parasitic disease that occurs due vertical transmission of the protozoan Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) during pregnancy. The parasite crosses the placental barrier and reaches the developing brain, infecting progenitor, glial, neuronal and vascular cell types. Although the role of Radial glia (RG) neural stem cells in the development of the brain vasculature has been recently investigated, the impact of T. gondii infection in these events is not yet understood. Herein, we studied the role of T. gondii infection on RG cell function and its interaction with endothelial cells. By infecting isolated RG cultures with T. gondii tachyzoites, we observed a cytotoxic effect with reduced numbers of RG populations together with decrease neuronal and oligodendrocyte progenitor populations. Conditioned medium (CM) from RG control cultures increased ZO-1 protein levels and organization on endothelial bEnd.3 cells membranes, which was impaired by CM from infected RG, accompanied by decreased trans-endothelial electrical resistance (TEER). ELISA assays revealed reduced levels of anti-inflammatory cytokine TGF-β1 in CM from T. gondii-infected RG cells. Treatment with recombinant TGF-β1 concomitantly with CM from infected RG cultures led to restoration of ZO-1 staining in bEnd.3 cells. Congenital infection in Swiss Webster mice led to abnormalities in the cortical microvasculature in comparison to uninfected embryos. Our results suggest that infection of RG cells by T. gondii negatively modulates cytokine secretion, which might contribute to endothelial loss of barrier properties, thus leading to impairment of neurovascular interaction establishment.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Michele Siqueira
- Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Liandra Alvarez-Rosa
- Laboratório de Biologia Estrutural, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fiocruz, Brazil; Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Cynthia M Cascabulho
- Laboratório de Inovação em Terapias, Ensino e Bioprodutos, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fiocruz, Brazil
| | - Mariana C Waghabi
- Laboratório de Genômica Funcional e Bioinformática, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fiocruz, Brazil
| | - Helene S Barbosa
- Laboratório de Biologia Estrutural, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fiocruz, Brazil
| | - Daniel Adesse
- Laboratório de Biologia Estrutural, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fiocruz, Brazil
| | - Joice Stipursky
- Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
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Rochet E, Appukuttan B, Ma Y, Ashander LM, Smith JR. Expression of Long Non-Coding RNAs by Human Retinal Müller Glial Cells Infected with Clonal and Exotic Virulent Toxoplasma gondii. Noncoding RNA 2019; 5:ncrna5040048. [PMID: 31547203 PMCID: PMC6958423 DOI: 10.3390/ncrna5040048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2019] [Revised: 09/16/2019] [Accepted: 09/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Retinal infection with Toxoplasma gondii-ocular toxoplasmosis-is a common cause of vision impairment worldwide. Pathology combines parasite-induced retinal cell death and reactive intraocular inflammation. Müller glial cells, which represent the supporting cell population of the retina, are relatively susceptible to infection with T. gondii. We investigated expression of long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) with immunologic regulatory activity in Müller cells infected with virulent T. gondii strains-GT1 (haplogroup 1, type I) and GPHT (haplogroup 6). We first confirmed expression of 33 lncRNA in primary cell isolates. MIO-M1 human retinal Müller cell monolayers were infected with T. gondii tachyzoites (multiplicity of infection = 5) and harvested at 4, 12, 24, and 36 h post-infection, with infection being tracked by the expression of parasite surface antigen 1 (SAG1). Significant fold-changes were observed for 31 lncRNAs at one or more time intervals. Similar changes between strains were measured for BANCR, CYTOR, FOXD3-AS1, GAS5, GSTT1-AS1, LINC-ROR, LUCAT1, MALAT1, MIR22HG, MIR143HG, PVT1, RMRP, SNHG15, and SOCS2-AS1. Changes differing between strains were measured for APTR, FIRRE, HOTAIR, HOXD-AS1, KCNQ1OT1, LINC00968, LINC01105, lnc-SGK1, MEG3, MHRT, MIAT, MIR17HG, MIR155HG, NEAT1, NeST, NRON, and PACER. Our findings suggest roles for lncRNAs in regulating retinal Müller cell immune responses to T. gondii, and encourage future studies on lncRNA as biomarkers and/or drug targets in ocular toxoplasmosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elise Rochet
- Flinders University College of Medicine & Public Health, Adelaide, SA 5042, Australia.
| | - Binoy Appukuttan
- Flinders University College of Medicine & Public Health, Adelaide, SA 5042, Australia.
| | - Yuefang Ma
- Flinders University College of Medicine & Public Health, Adelaide, SA 5042, Australia.
| | - Liam M Ashander
- Flinders University College of Medicine & Public Health, Adelaide, SA 5042, Australia.
| | - Justine R Smith
- Flinders University College of Medicine & Public Health, Adelaide, SA 5042, Australia.
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Rochet E, Argy N, Greigert V, Brunet J, Sabou M, Marcellin L, de-la-Torre A, Sauer A, Candolfi E, Pfaff AW. Type I ROP16 regulates retinal inflammatory responses during ocular toxoplasmosis. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0214310. [PMID: 30901349 PMCID: PMC6430381 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0214310] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2018] [Accepted: 03/11/2019] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Ocular toxoplasmosis (OT), mostly retinochorioditis, is a major feature of infection with the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii. The pathophysiology of this infection is still largely elusive; especially mouse models are not yet well developed. In contrast, numerous in vitro studies showed the highly Toxoplasma strain dependent nature of the host-parasite interactions. Some distinct polymorphic virulence factors were characterized, notably the rhoptry protein ROP16. Here, we studied the strain-dependent pathophysiology in our OT mouse model. Besides of two wild type strains of the canonical I (RH, virulent) and II (PRU, avirulent) types, we used genetically engineered parasites, RHΔROP16 and PRU ROP16-I, expressing the type I allele of this virulence factor. We analyzed retinal integrity, parasite proliferation and retinal expression of cytokines. PRU parasites behaved much more virulently in the presence of a type I ROP16. In contrast, knockout of ROP16 in the RH strain led to a decrease of intraocular proliferation, but no difference in retinal pathology. Cytokine quantification in aqueous humor showed strong production of Th1 and inflammatory markers following infection with the two strains containing the ROP16-I allele. In strong contrast, immunofluorescence images showed that actual expression of most cytokines in retinal cells is rapidly suppressed by type I strain infection, with or without the involvement of its homologous ROP16 allele. This demonstrates the particular immune privileged situation of the retina, which is also revealed by the fact that parasite proliferation is nearly exclusively observed outside the retina. In summary, we further developed a promising OT mouse model and demonstrated the specific pathology in retinal tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elise Rochet
- Institut de Parasitologie et Pathologie Tropicale, EA, Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle, Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Nicolas Argy
- Institut de Parasitologie et Pathologie Tropicale, EA, Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle, Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Valentin Greigert
- Institut de Parasitologie et Pathologie Tropicale, EA, Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle, Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Julie Brunet
- Institut de Parasitologie et Pathologie Tropicale, EA, Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle, Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
- Service de Parasitologie et Mycologie Médicale, Hôpitaux Universitaires de Strasbourg, Centre National de Référence de la Toxoplasmose, Pôle Sérologie, Strasbourg, France
| | - Marcela Sabou
- Institut de Parasitologie et Pathologie Tropicale, EA, Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle, Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
- Service de Parasitologie et Mycologie Médicale, Hôpitaux Universitaires de Strasbourg, Centre National de Référence de la Toxoplasmose, Pôle Sérologie, Strasbourg, France
| | - Luc Marcellin
- Service de Pathologie, Hôpitaux Universitaires de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Alejandra de-la-Torre
- Institut de Parasitologie et Pathologie Tropicale, EA, Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle, Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
- Grupo NeURos, Unidad de Inmunología, Universidad del Rosario, Escuela de Medicina y Ciencias de la Salud, Bogotá, Colombia
| | - Arnaud Sauer
- Service d’Ophtalmologie, Hôpitaux Universitaires de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Ermanno Candolfi
- Institut de Parasitologie et Pathologie Tropicale, EA, Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle, Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
- Service de Parasitologie et Mycologie Médicale, Hôpitaux Universitaires de Strasbourg, Centre National de Référence de la Toxoplasmose, Pôle Sérologie, Strasbourg, France
| | - Alexander W. Pfaff
- Institut de Parasitologie et Pathologie Tropicale, EA, Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle, Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
- Service de Parasitologie et Mycologie Médicale, Hôpitaux Universitaires de Strasbourg, Centre National de Référence de la Toxoplasmose, Pôle Sérologie, Strasbourg, France
- * E-mail:
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Vargas-Villavicencio JA, Besné-Mérida A, Correa D. Vertical transmission and fetal damage in animal models of congenital toxoplasmosis: A systematic review. Vet Parasitol 2016; 223:195-204. [PMID: 27198800 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2016.04.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2015] [Revised: 02/04/2016] [Accepted: 04/18/2016] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
In humans, the probability of congenital infection and fetal damage due to Toxoplasma gondii is dependent on the gestation period at which primary infection occurs. Many animal models have been used for vaccine, drug testing, or studies on host or parasite factors that affect transmission or fetal pathology, but few works have directly tested fetal infection and damage rates along gestation. So, the purpose of this work was to perform a systematic review of the literature to determine if there is a model which reflects these changes as they occur in humans. We looked for papers appearing between 1970 and 2014 in major databases like Medline and Scopus, as well as gray literature. From almost 11,000 citations obtained, only 49 papers fulfilled the criteria of having data of all independent variables and at least one dependent datum for control (untreated) groups. Some interesting findings could be extracted. For example, pigs seem resistant and sheep susceptible to congenital infection. Also, oocysts cause more congenitally infected offspring than tissue cysts, bradyzoites or tachyzoites. In spite of these interesting findings, very few results on vertical transmission or fetal damage rates were similar to those described for humans and only for one of the gestation thirds, not all. Moreover, in most designs tissue cysts - with unknown number of bradyzoites - were used, so actual dose could not be established. The meta-analysis could not be performed, mainly because of great heterogeneity in experimental conditions. Nevertheless, results gathered suggest that a model could be designed to represent the increase in vertical transmission and decrease in fetal damage found in humans under natural conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- José Antonio Vargas-Villavicencio
- Lab. de Inmunología Experimental, Instituto Nacional de Pediatría, SSa. Torre de Investigación, Av. Insurgentes Sur 3700-C, Col. Insurgentes Cuicuilco, Ciudad de México 04530, Mexico
| | - Alejandro Besné-Mérida
- Lab. de Inmunología Experimental, Instituto Nacional de Pediatría, SSa. Torre de Investigación, Av. Insurgentes Sur 3700-C, Col. Insurgentes Cuicuilco, Ciudad de México 04530, Mexico
| | - Dolores Correa
- Lab. de Inmunología Experimental, Instituto Nacional de Pediatría, SSa. Torre de Investigación, Av. Insurgentes Sur 3700-C, Col. Insurgentes Cuicuilco, Ciudad de México 04530, Mexico.
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9
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Vargas-Villavicencio JA, Cedillo-Peláez C, Rico-Torres CP, Besné-Mérida A, García-Vázquez F, Saldaña JI, Correa D. Mouse model of congenital infection with a non-virulent Toxoplasma gondii strain: Vertical transmission, "sterile" fetal damage, or both? Exp Parasitol 2016; 166:116-23. [PMID: 27068784 DOI: 10.1016/j.exppara.2016.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2015] [Revised: 03/23/2016] [Accepted: 04/05/2016] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Congenital transmission of Toxoplasma gondii may occur if the mother gets infected for the first time while pregnant. The risk of mother-to-child transmission depends on the gestation trimester at infection, being lowest in the first and highest in the last. Conversely, fetal damage is frequent and more severe at the beginning of pregnancy. The objective of this study was to evaluate congenital transmission and pathological aspects in the placenta and the fetus using a mouse model of congenital infection of the second gestation third. Forty-five female BALB/c mice were infected intravenously with 2.5-10.0 × 10(6) tachyzoites of the ME49 strain at middle gestation. Samples of maternal spleen and fetal/placental units were taken 72 h later. We determined parasite load and vertical transmission by qPCR, as well as damage macroscopically and by histopathology. With the lowest dose, 18% of the fetuses were infected. Also, 40% of fetuses/litter were altered, while this value was 10% in the control group (P < 0.05). These results are similar to those described in humans in terms of vertical transmission and fetal damage during the second third of gestation. The maternal spleen had 10-1000 times more tachyzoites than the placenta, and the later retained 90-99% of the parasites that could reach the fetus. Nevertheless, we found resorptions, abortions or fetal tissue damage in the presence but also in the absence of parasites. Our data indicate a strong protective effect of maternal organs and the placenta against fetal infection, but extensive damage of the later may led to resorption or abortion without vertical transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- J A Vargas-Villavicencio
- Laboratorio de Inmunología Experimental, Instituto Nacional de Pediatría, SSa. Torre de Investigación, Av. Insurgentes Sur 3700-C, Col. Insurgentes Cuicuilco, Mexico City 04530, Mexico
| | - C Cedillo-Peláez
- Laboratorio de Inmunología Experimental, Instituto Nacional de Pediatría, SSa. Torre de Investigación, Av. Insurgentes Sur 3700-C, Col. Insurgentes Cuicuilco, Mexico City 04530, Mexico
| | - C P Rico-Torres
- Laboratorio de Inmunología Experimental, Instituto Nacional de Pediatría, SSa. Torre de Investigación, Av. Insurgentes Sur 3700-C, Col. Insurgentes Cuicuilco, Mexico City 04530, Mexico
| | - A Besné-Mérida
- Laboratorio de Inmunología Experimental, Instituto Nacional de Pediatría, SSa. Torre de Investigación, Av. Insurgentes Sur 3700-C, Col. Insurgentes Cuicuilco, Mexico City 04530, Mexico; Doctorado en Ciencias de la Salud y Reproducción Animal, FMVZ, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Mexico, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - F García-Vázquez
- Departamento de Anatomía Patológica, Instituto Nacional de Pediatría, SSa. Torre de Investigación, Av. Insurgentes Sur 3700-C, Col. Insurgentes Cuicuilco, Mexico City 04530, Mexico
| | - J I Saldaña
- Investigador Cátedra CONACyT en el Instituto Nacional de pediatría, Laboratorio de Inmunología Experimental, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - D Correa
- Laboratorio de Inmunología Experimental, Instituto Nacional de Pediatría, SSa. Torre de Investigación, Av. Insurgentes Sur 3700-C, Col. Insurgentes Cuicuilco, Mexico City 04530, Mexico.
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Dukaczewska A, Tedesco R, Liesenfeld O. Experimental Models of Ocular Infection with Toxoplasma Gondii. Eur J Microbiol Immunol (Bp) 2015; 5:293-305. [PMID: 26716018 PMCID: PMC4681357 DOI: 10.1556/1886.2015.00045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2015] [Accepted: 11/11/2015] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Ocular toxoplasmosis is a vision-threatening disease and the major cause of posterior uveitis worldwide. In spite of the continuing global burden of ocular toxoplasmosis, many critical aspects of disease including the therapeutic approach to ocular toxoplasmosis are still under debate. To assist in addressing many aspects of the disease, numerous experimental models of ocular toxoplasmosis have been established. In this article, we present an overview on in vitro, ex vivo, and in vivo models of ocular toxoplasmosis available to date. Experimental studies on ocular toxoplasmosis have recently focused on mice. However, the majority of murine models established so far are based on intraperitoneal and intraocular infection with Toxoplasma gondii. We therefore also present results obtained in an in vivo model using peroral infection of C57BL/6 and NMRI mice that reflects the natural route of infection and mimics the disease course in humans. While advances have been made in ex vivo model systems or larger animals to investigate specific aspects of ocular toxoplasmosis, laboratory mice continue to be the experimental model of choice for the investigation of ocular toxoplasmosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agata Dukaczewska
- Institut für Mikrobiologie und Hygiene, Charité UniversitätsmedizinBerlin, Germany
| | - Roberto Tedesco
- Disciplina de Anatomia Descritiva e Topográfica, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, Brazil, Germany
| | - Oliver Liesenfeld
- Institut für Mikrobiologie und Hygiene, Charité UniversitätsmedizinBerlin, Germany
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Rochet É, Brunet J, Sabou M, Marcellin L, Bourcier T, Candolfi E, Pfaff AW. Interleukin-6-driven inflammatory response induces retinal pathology in a model of ocular toxoplasmosis reactivation. Infect Immun 2015; 83:2109-17. [PMID: 25754200 DOI: 10.1128/IAI.02985-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2014] [Accepted: 03/02/2015] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Ocular inflammation is one of the consequences of infection with the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii. Even if lesions are self-healing in immunocompetent persons, they pose a lifetime risk of reactivation and are a serious threat to vision. As there are virtually no immunological data on reactivating ocular toxoplasmosis, we established a model of direct intravitreal injection of parasites in previously infected mice with a homologous type II strain. Two different mouse strains with variable ability to control retinal infection were studied in order to describe protective and deleterious reaction patterns. In Swiss-Webster mice, which are already relatively resistant to primary infection, no peak of parasite load was observed upon reinfection. In contrast, the susceptible inbred strain C57BL/6 showed high parasite loads after 7 days, as well as marked deterioration of retinal architecture. Both parameters were back to normal on day 21. C57BL/6 mice also reacted with a strong local production of inflammatory and Th1-type cytokines, like interleukin-6 (IL-6), IL-17A, and gamma interferon (IFN-γ), while Swiss-Webster mice showed only moderate expression of the Th2 cytokine IL-31. Interestingly, rapid intraocular production of anti-Toxoplasma antibodies was observed in Swiss-Webster but not in C57BL/6 mice. We then localized the cellular source of different immune mediators within the retina by immunofluorescence. Finally, neutralization experiments of IFN-γ or IL-6 demonstrated the respective protective and deleterious roles of these cytokines for parasite control and retinal integrity during reinfection. In conclusion, we developed and immunologically characterized a promising mouse model of reactivating ocular toxoplasmosis.
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Dias RRF, de Carvalho ECQ, Leite CCDS, Tedesco RC, Calabrese KDS, Silva AC, DaMatta RA, de Fatima Sarro-Silva M. Toxoplasma gondii oral infection induces intestinal inflammation and retinochoroiditis in mice genetically selected for immune oral tolerance resistance. PLoS One 2014; 9:e113374. [PMID: 25437299 PMCID: PMC4249919 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0113374] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2013] [Accepted: 10/27/2014] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Toxoplasmosis is a worldwide disease with most of the infections originating through the oral route and generates various pathological manifestations, ranging from meningoencephalitis to retinochoroiditis and inflammatory bowel disease. Animal models for these pathologies are scarce and have limitations. We evaluated the outcome of Toxoplasma gondii oral infection with 50 or 100 cysts of the ME-49 strain in two lines of mice with extreme phenotypes of susceptibility (TS) or resistance (TR) to immune oral tolerance. Therefore, the aim of this study was to evaluate the behaviour of TS and TR mice, orally infected by T. gondii, and determine its value as a model for inflammatory diseases study. Mortality during the acute stage of the infection for TR was 50% for both dosages, while 10 and 40% of the TS died after infection with these respective dosages. In the chronic stage, the remaining TS succumbed while TR survived for 90 days. The TS displayed higher parasite load with lower intestinal inflammation and cellular proliferation, notwithstanding myocarditis, pneumonitis and meningoencephalitis. TR presented massive necrosis of villi and crypt, comparable to inflammatory bowel disease, with infiltration of lymphoid cells in the lamina propria of the intestines. Also, TR mice infected with 100 cysts presented intense cellular infiltrate within the photoreceptor layer of the eyes, changes in disposition and morphology of the retina cell layers and retinochoroiditis. During the infection, high levels of IL-6 were detected in the serum of TS mice and TR mice presented high amounts of IFN-γ and TNF-α. Both mice lineages developed different disease outcomes, but it is emphasized that TR and TS mice presented acute and chronic stages of the infection, demonstrating that the two lineages offer an attractive model for studying toxoplasmosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raul Ramos Furtado Dias
- Laboratório de Biologia Celular e Tecidual, Universidade Estadual do Norte Fluminense Darcy Ribeiro (UENF), 28013-602, Campos dos Goytacazes, RJ, Brazil
- Laboratório de Imunomodulação e Protozoologia, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz (IOC), Fundação Oswaldo Cruz (FIOCRUZ), 21045-900, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | | | - Carla Cristina da Silva Leite
- Laboratório de Biologia Celular e Tecidual, Universidade Estadual do Norte Fluminense Darcy Ribeiro (UENF), 28013-602, Campos dos Goytacazes, RJ, Brazil
| | - Roberto Carlos Tedesco
- Disciplina de Anatomia Topográfica e Descritiva, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, 04023-900, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Katia da Silva Calabrese
- Laboratório de Imunomodulação e Protozoologia, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz (IOC), Fundação Oswaldo Cruz (FIOCRUZ), 21045-900, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Antonio Carlos Silva
- Laboratório de Imunobiologia, Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro (UERJ), 20550-900, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Renato Augusto DaMatta
- Laboratório de Biologia Celular e Tecidual, Universidade Estadual do Norte Fluminense Darcy Ribeiro (UENF), 28013-602, Campos dos Goytacazes, RJ, Brazil
| | - Maria de Fatima Sarro-Silva
- Laboratório de Biologia Celular e Tecidual, Universidade Estadual do Norte Fluminense Darcy Ribeiro (UENF), 28013-602, Campos dos Goytacazes, RJ, Brazil
- Laboratório de Imunobiologia, Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro (UERJ), 20550-900, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
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Lahmar I, Pfaff AW, Marcellin L, Sauer A, Moussa A, Babba H, Candolfi E. Müller cell activation and photoreceptor depletion in a mice model of congenital ocular toxoplasmosis. Exp Parasitol 2014; 144:22-6. [PMID: 24929147 DOI: 10.1016/j.exppara.2014.06.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2013] [Revised: 04/10/2014] [Accepted: 06/03/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Müller glial cells are critically involved in retinal inflammatory processes. Here, we investigate the activation of Müller cells in a model of congenital ocular toxoplasmosis (OT). Four weeks after infection, retinal sections were studied immunohistochemically using the markers glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) and vimentin. Müller cells showed strong up-regulation of both markers, as well as a deteriorated morphology in all infected retinas. Moreover, cell density and color intensity of the outer nuclear layer (ONL) of photoreceptors were decreased. Our results indicate that the severe retinal damage and loss of vision observed in human OT may be not only directly caused by infection but rather mediated by infection induced reactive gliosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ibtissem Lahmar
- Institut de Parasitologie et de Pathologie Tropicale, EA 7292, Fédération de Médecine Translationelle, Université de Strasbourg, France; Laboratoire de Parasitologie - Mycologie Médicale et Moléculaire (code LR12ES08), Département de Biologie Clinique B, Faculté de Pharmacie de Monastir, Université de Monastir, Tunisia.
| | - Alexander W Pfaff
- Institut de Parasitologie et de Pathologie Tropicale, EA 7292, Fédération de Médecine Translationelle, Université de Strasbourg, France
| | - Luc Marcellin
- Département de Pathologie, Hôpitaux Universitaires de Strasbourg, France
| | - Arnaud Sauer
- Institut de Parasitologie et de Pathologie Tropicale, EA 7292, Fédération de Médecine Translationelle, Université de Strasbourg, France
| | - Adnane Moussa
- Laboratoire d'Anatomie Pathologique, Hôpital Universitaire Fattouma Bourguiba, Monastir, Tunisia
| | - Hamouda Babba
- Laboratoire de Parasitologie - Mycologie Médicale et Moléculaire (code LR12ES08), Département de Biologie Clinique B, Faculté de Pharmacie de Monastir, Université de Monastir, Tunisia
| | - Ermanno Candolfi
- Institut de Parasitologie et de Pathologie Tropicale, EA 7292, Fédération de Médecine Translationelle, Université de Strasbourg, France
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Sánchez V, de-la-Torre A, Gómez-marín JE. Characterization of ROP18 alleles in human toxoplasmosis. Parasitol Int 2014; 63:463-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.parint.2013.10.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2013] [Revised: 09/29/2013] [Accepted: 10/18/2013] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
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Pfaff AW, de-la-Torre A, Rochet E, Brunet J, Sabou M, Sauer A, Bourcier T, Gomez-marin JE, Candolfi E. New clinical and experimental insights into Old World and neotropical ocular toxoplasmosis. Int J Parasitol 2014; 44:99-107. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2013.09.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2013] [Revised: 09/20/2013] [Accepted: 09/22/2013] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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Abstract
Despite large advances in the field of ocular toxoplasmosis, large gaps still exist in our knowledge concerning the epidemiology and pathophysiology of this potentially blinding infectious disease. Although ocular toxoplasmosis is considered to have a high health burden, still little is known about its exact prevalence and how it affects the quality of life. The epidemiology of toxoplasmosis depends on local habits throughout the globe, and changes are likely in view of increased meat consumption in developing countries and demands for higher animal welfare in the Western world. Water is increasingly seen as an important risk factor and more studies are needed to quantitate and control the role of water exposure (drinking, swimming). Tools are now becoming available to study both the human host as well as parasite genetic factors in the development of ocular toxoplasmosis. Further research on the role of Toxoplasma strains as well as basic studies on parasite virulence is needed to explain why Toxoplasma associated eye disease is so severe in some countries, such as Brazil. Although genetic analysis of the parasite represents the gold standard, further developments in serotyping using peptide arrays may offer practical solutions to study the role of parasite strains in the pathogenesis of Toxoplasma retinochoroiditis. More research is needed concerning the pathways whereby the parasite can infect the retina. Once in the retina further tissue damage may be due to parasite virulence factors or could be caused by an aberrant host immune response. Local intraocular immune responses are nowadays used for diagnostic procedures. Future developments may include the use of Raman technology or the direct visualization of a Toxoplasma cyst by optical coherence tomography (OCT). With the availability of ocular fluid specimens obtained for diagnostic purposes and the development of advanced proteomic techniques, a biomarker fingerprint that is unique for an eye with toxoplasmosis may become available. It is hoped that such a biomarker analysis may also be able to distinguish between acquired versus congenital disease. Recently developed mouse models of congenital ocular toxoplasmosis are extremely promising with regard to disease pathogenesis, diagnosis, and treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aize Kijlstra
- Livestock Research, Wageningen University and Research Centre, Lelystad, The Netherlands; and University Eye Clinic Maastricht, Maastricht , The Netherlands, Maastricht , The Netherlands and
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Sauer A, Rochet E, Lahmar I, Brunet J, Sabou M, Bourcier T, Candolfi E, Pfaff AW. The local immune response to intraocular Toxoplasma re-challenge: less pathology and better parasite control through Treg/Th1/Th2 induction. Int J Parasitol 2013; 43:721-8. [PMID: 23702129 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2013.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2013] [Revised: 04/09/2013] [Accepted: 04/10/2013] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Ocular toxoplasmosis is a major cause of blindness world-wide. Ocular involvement is frequently seen following congenital infection. Many of these infections are quiescent but pose a life-time risk of reactivation. However, the physiopathology of ocular toxoplasmosis reactivation is largely unexplored. We previously developed a Swiss-Webster outbred mouse model for congenital toxoplasmosis by neonatal injection of Toxoplasma gondii cysts. We also used a mouse model of direct intraocular infection to show a deleterious local T helper 17 type response upon primary infection. In the present study, our two models were combined to study intravitreal re-challenge of neonatally infected mice, as an approximate model of reactivation, in comparison with a primary ocular infection. Using BioPlex proteomic assays in aqueous humour and reverse transcription-PCR for T helper cell transcription factors, we observed diminished T helper 17 type reaction in reinfection, compared with primary infection. In contrast, T helper 2 and T regulatory responses were enhanced. Interestingly, this was also true for T helper 1 markers such as IFN-γ, which was paralleled by better parasite control. Secretion of IL-27, a central cytokine for shifting the immune response from T helper 17 to T helper 1, was also greatly enhanced. We observed a similar protective immune reaction pattern in the eye upon reinfection with the virulent RH strain, with the notable exception of IFN-γ. In summary, our results show that the balance is shifted from T helper 17 to a less pathogenic but more effective anti-parasite Treg/T helper 1/T helper 2 pattern in a reactivation setting.
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Sauer A, Pfaff AW, Villard O, Creuzot-Garcher C, Dalle F, Chiquet C, Pelloux H, Speeg-Schatz C, Gaucher D, Prevost G, Bourcier T, Candolfi E. Interleukin 17A as an Effective Target for Anti-inflammatory and Antiparasitic Treatment of Toxoplasmic Uveitis. J Infect Dis 2012; 206:1319-29. [DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jis486] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
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Abstract
PURPOSE To review current evidence for the treatment of ocular toxoplasmosis (OT). DESIGN Narrative review and expert recommendations. METHODS Meta-analysis and selected original articles from the medical literature were reviewed critically. Expert recommendations were analyzed. RESULTS Numerous observational studies suggest a benefit of short-term antimicrobial therapy for toxoplasmic retinochoroiditis in immunocompetent patients, although its efficacy has not been proven in randomized clinical trials. A randomized clinical trial revealed that intermittent trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole treatment could decrease the rate of recurrence in high-risk patients. Intravitreal injection of clindamycin and dexamethasone was an acceptable alternative to the classic treatment for OT in a randomized clinical trial. CONCLUSIONS Opinions about therapy differ and controversy remains about its type, efficacy, and length. Intravitreal therapy may be promising for OT. A recent description of the presence of parasitemia in patients with active and inactive ocular toxoplasmosis raises new questions that need to be explored.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alejandra de-la-Torre
- Grupo de Estudio en Parasitología Molecular, Centro de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad del Quindío, Armenia, Colombia.
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Escoffier P, Jeanny J, Marinach-Patrice C, Jonet L, Raoul W, Behar-Cohen F, Paris L, Danis M, Dubremetz J, Mazier D. Toxoplasma gondii: Flat-mounting of retina as a new tool for the observation of ocular infection in mice. Exp Parasitol 2010; 126:259-62. [DOI: 10.1016/j.exppara.2010.04.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2009] [Revised: 01/20/2010] [Accepted: 04/08/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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