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Lanz-Mendoza H, Gálvez D, Contreras-Garduño J. The plasticity of immune memory in invertebrates. J Exp Biol 2024; 227:jeb246158. [PMID: 38449328 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.246158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/08/2024]
Abstract
Whether specific immune protection after initial pathogen exposure (immune memory) occurs in invertebrates has long been uncertain. The absence of antibodies, B-cells and T-cells, and the short lifespans of invertebrates led to the hypothesis that immune memory does not occur in these organisms. However, research in the past two decades has supported the existence of immune memory in several invertebrate groups, including Ctenophora, Cnidaria, Nematoda, Mollusca and Arthropoda. Interestingly, some studies have demonstrated immune memory that is specific to the parasite strain. Nonetheless, other work does not provide support for immune memory in invertebrates or offers only partial support. Moreover, the expected biphasic immune response, a characteristic of adaptive immune memory in vertebrates, varies within and between invertebrate species. This variation may be attributed to the influence of biotic or abiotic factors, particularly parasites, on the outcome of immune memory. Despite its critical importance for survival, the role of phenotypic plasticity in immune memory has not been systematically examined in the past two decades. Additionally, the features of immune responses occurring in diverse environments have yet to be fully characterized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Humberto Lanz-Mendoza
- Centro de Investigaciones sobre Enfermedades Infecciosas, INSP, 62100 Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico
| | - Dumas Gálvez
- Coiba Scientific Station, City of Knowledge, Calle Gustavo Lara, Boulevard 145B, Clayton 0843-01853, Panama
- Programa Centroamericano de Maestría en Entomología, Universidad de Panamá, Estafeta universitaria, Avenida Simón Bolívar, 0824, Panama
- Sistema Nacional de Investigación, Edificio 205, Ciudad del Saber, 0816-02852, Panama
| | - Jorge Contreras-Garduño
- Escuela Nacional de Estudios Superiores, Unidad Morelia, UNAM, 58190 Morelia, Mexico
- Institute for Evolution and Biodiversity, University of Münster, 48149 Münster, Germany
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Sułek M, Kordaczuk J, Mak P, Śmiałek-Bartyzel J, Hułas-Stasiak M, Wojda I. Immune priming modulates Galleria mellonella and Pseudomonas entomophila interaction. Antimicrobial properties of Kazal peptide Pr13a. Front Immunol 2024; 15:1358247. [PMID: 38469316 PMCID: PMC10925678 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2024.1358247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2023] [Accepted: 01/23/2024] [Indexed: 03/13/2024] Open
Abstract
Galleria mellonella larvae repeatedly infected with Pseudomonas entomophila bacteria re-induced their immune response. Its parameters, i.e. the defence activities of cell-free hemolymph, the presence and activity of antimicrobial peptides, and the expression of immune-relevant genes were modulated after the re-challenge in comparison to non-primed infected larvae, resulting in better protection. No enhanced resistance was observed when the larvae were initially infected with other microorganisms, and larvae pre-infected with P. entomophila were not more resistant to further infection with other pathogens. Then, the peptide profiles of hemolymph from primed- and non-primed larvae infected with P. entomophila were compared by quantitative RP-HPLC (Reverse Phase - High Performance Liquid Chromatography). The level of carbonic anhydrase, anionic peptide-1, proline peptide-2, and finally, unknown so far, putative Kazal peptide Pr13a was higher in the primed infected animals than in the larvae infected with P. entomophila for the first time. The expression of the Pr13a gene increased two-fold after the infection, but only in the primed animals. To check whether the enhanced level of Pr13a could have physiological significance, the peptide was purified to homogeneity and checked for its defence properties. In fact, it had antibacterial activity: at the concentration of 15 µM and 7.5 µM it reduced the number of P. entomophila and Bacillus thuringiensis CFU, respectively, to about 40%. The antibacterial activity of Pr13a was correlated with changes observed on the surface of the peptide-treated bacteria, e.g. surface roughness and adhesion force. The presented results bring us closer to finding hemolymph constituents responsible for the effect of priming on the immune response in re-infected insects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michał Sułek
- Department of Immunobiology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Maria Curie-Sklodowska University, Lublin, Poland
| | - Jakub Kordaczuk
- Department of Immunobiology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Maria Curie-Sklodowska University, Lublin, Poland
| | - Paweł Mak
- Department of Analytical Biochemistry, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, Kraków, Poland
| | - Justyna Śmiałek-Bartyzel
- Department of Analytical Biochemistry, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, Kraków, Poland
- Doctoral School of Exact and Natural Sciences, Jagiellonian University, Kraków, Poland
| | - Monika Hułas-Stasiak
- Department of Functional Anatomy and Cytobiology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Maria Curie-Sklodowska University, Lublin, Poland
| | - Iwona Wojda
- Department of Immunobiology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Maria Curie-Sklodowska University, Lublin, Poland
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Kordaczuk J, Sułek M, Mak P, Śmiałek-Bartyzel J, Hułas-Stasiak M, Wojda I. Defence response of Galleria mellonella larvae to oral and intrahemocelic infection with Pseudomonasentomophila. Dev Comp Immunol 2023; 147:104749. [PMID: 37279831 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2023.104749] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2023] [Revised: 05/10/2023] [Accepted: 05/29/2023] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
We report differences in the course of infection of G. mellonella larvae with P. entomophila via intrahemocelic and oral routes. Survival curves, larval morphology, histology, and induction of defence response were investigated. Larvae injected with 10 and 50 cells of P. entomophila activated a dose-dependent immune response, which was manifested by induction of immune-related genes and dose-dependent defence activity in larval hemolymph. In contrast, after the oral application of the pathogen, antimicrobial activity was detected in whole hemolymph of larvae infected with the 103 but not 105 dose in spite of the induction of immune response manifested as immune-relevant gene expression and defence activity of electrophoretically separated low-molecular hemolymph components. Among known proteins induced after the P. entomophila infection, we identified proline-rich peptide 1 and 2, cecropin D-like peptide, galiomycin, lysozyme, anionic peptide 1, defensin-like peptide, and a 27 kDa hemolymph protein. The expression of the lysozyme gene and the amount of protein in the hemolymph were correlated with inactivity of hemolymph in insects orally infected with a higher dose of P. entomophila, pointing to its role in the host-pathogen interaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jakub Kordaczuk
- Maria Curie-Sklodowska University, Institute of Biological Sciences, Department of Immunobiology, Lublin, Poland
| | - Michał Sułek
- Maria Curie-Sklodowska University, Institute of Biological Sciences, Department of Immunobiology, Lublin, Poland
| | - Paweł Mak
- Jagiellonian University, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Department of Analytical Biochemistry, Kraków, Poland
| | - Justyna Śmiałek-Bartyzel
- Jagiellonian University, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Department of Analytical Biochemistry, Kraków, Poland; Jagiellonian University, Doctoral School of Exact and Natural Sciences, Kraków, Poland
| | - Monika Hułas-Stasiak
- Maria Curie-Sklodowska University, Institute of Biological Sciences, Department of Functional Anatomy and Cytobiology, Lublin, Poland
| | - Iwona Wojda
- Maria Curie-Sklodowska University, Institute of Biological Sciences, Department of Immunobiology, Lublin, Poland.
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González-Acosta S, Baca-González V, Asensio-Calavia P, Otazo-Pérez A, López MR, Morales-delaNuez A, Pérez de la Lastra JM. Efficient Oral Priming of Tenebrio molitor Larvae Using Heat-Inactivated Microorganisms. Vaccines (Basel) 2022; 10:vaccines10081296. [PMID: 36016184 PMCID: PMC9415734 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines10081296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2022] [Revised: 08/04/2022] [Accepted: 08/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Microbial resistance is a global health problem that will increase over time. Advances in insect antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) offer a powerful new approach to combat antimicrobial resistance. Invertebrates represent a rich group of animals for the discovery of new antimicrobial agents due to their high diversity and the presence of adaptive immunity or “immune priming”. Here, we report a priming approach for Tenebrio molitor that simulates natural infection via the oral route. This oral administration has the advantage of minimizing the stress caused by conventional priming techniques and could be a viable method for mealworm immunity studies. When using inactivated microorganisms for oral priming, our results showed an increased survival of T. molitor larvae after exposure to various pathogens. This finding was consistent with the induction of antimicrobial activity in the hemolymph of primed larvae. Interestingly, the hemolymph of larvae orally primed with Escherichia coli showed constitutive activity against Staphylococcus aureus and heterologous activity for other Gram-negative bacteria, such as Salmonella enterica. The priming of T. molitor is generally performed via injection of the microorganism. To our knowledge, this is the first report describing the oral administration of heat-inactivated microorganisms for priming mealworms. This technique has the advantage of reducing the stress that occurs with the conventional methods for priming vertebrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sergio González-Acosta
- Biotechnology of Macromolecules Research Group, Instituto de Productos Naturales y Agrobiología, (IPNA-CSIC), 38206 San Cristóbal de la Laguna, Spain
- Escuela de Doctorado y Estudios de Posgrado, Universidad de La Laguna Avda, Astrofísico Francisco Sánchez, SN. Edificio Calabaza-Apdo, 456, 38200 San Cristóbal de La Laguna, Spain
| | - Victoria Baca-González
- Biotechnology of Macromolecules Research Group, Instituto de Productos Naturales y Agrobiología, (IPNA-CSIC), 38206 San Cristóbal de la Laguna, Spain
| | - Patricia Asensio-Calavia
- Biotechnology of Macromolecules Research Group, Instituto de Productos Naturales y Agrobiología, (IPNA-CSIC), 38206 San Cristóbal de la Laguna, Spain
- Escuela de Doctorado y Estudios de Posgrado, Universidad de La Laguna Avda, Astrofísico Francisco Sánchez, SN. Edificio Calabaza-Apdo, 456, 38200 San Cristóbal de La Laguna, Spain
| | - Andrea Otazo-Pérez
- Biotechnology of Macromolecules Research Group, Instituto de Productos Naturales y Agrobiología, (IPNA-CSIC), 38206 San Cristóbal de la Laguna, Spain
- Escuela de Doctorado y Estudios de Posgrado, Universidad de La Laguna Avda, Astrofísico Francisco Sánchez, SN. Edificio Calabaza-Apdo, 456, 38200 San Cristóbal de La Laguna, Spain
| | - Manuel R. López
- Biotechnology of Macromolecules Research Group, Instituto de Productos Naturales y Agrobiología, (IPNA-CSIC), 38206 San Cristóbal de la Laguna, Spain
| | - Antonio Morales-delaNuez
- Biotechnology of Macromolecules Research Group, Instituto de Productos Naturales y Agrobiología, (IPNA-CSIC), 38206 San Cristóbal de la Laguna, Spain
| | - José Manuel Pérez de la Lastra
- Biotechnology of Macromolecules Research Group, Instituto de Productos Naturales y Agrobiología, (IPNA-CSIC), 38206 San Cristóbal de la Laguna, Spain
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +34-922-474334
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Gohl P, LeMoine C, Cassone B. Diet and ontogeny drastically alter the larval microbiome of the invertebrate model Galleria mellonella. Can J Microbiol 2022; 68:594-604. [PMID: 35863073 DOI: 10.1139/cjm-2022-0058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Larvae of the greater wax moth (Galleria mellonella) are an emerging animal model to study the innate immune response and biodegradation of plastic polymers. Both of these complex biological processes are likely impacted by the plasticity of host-microbe interactions, which remains understudied in lepidopterans. Consequently we carried out 16S rRNA sequencing to explore the effect diet (natural, artificial) has on the bacterial assemblages of G. mellonella in different tissues (gut, fat bodies, silk glands) throughout development (eggs, six instar stages, adults). The microbiome was rich in diversity, with Proteobacteria and Firmicutes being the most represented phyla. Contrary to other lepidopterans, G. mellonella appears to possess a resident microbiome dominated by Ralstonia. As larvae progress through development, the bacterial assemblages become increasingly shaped by the caterpillar's diet. In particular, a number of bacteria genera widely associated with the G. mellonella microbiome (e.g., Enterococcus and Enterbacter) were significantly enriched on an artificial diet. Overall these results indicate that the G. mellonella microbiome is not as simplistic and homogenous as previously described. Rather, its bacterial communities are drastically affected by both diet and ontogeny, which should be taken into consideration in future studies planning to use G. mellonella as model species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick Gohl
- Brandon University Faculty of Science, 414985, Brandon, Manitoba, Canada;
| | - Christophe LeMoine
- Brandon University Faculty of Science, 414985, Brandon, Manitoba, Canada;
| | - Bryan Cassone
- Brandon University, 1916, Brandon, Manitoba, Canada;
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Li Z, Jia L, Jiao Z, Guo G, Zhang Y, Xun H, Shang X, Huang L, Wu J. Immune priming with Candida albicans induces a shift in cellular immunity and gene expression of Musca domestica. Microb Pathog 2022; 168:105597. [DOI: 10.1016/j.micpath.2022.105597] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2022] [Revised: 04/20/2022] [Accepted: 05/16/2022] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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Lanz-Mendoza H, Contreras-Garduño J. Innate immune memory in invertebrates: Concept and potential mechanisms. Dev Comp Immunol 2022; 127:104285. [PMID: 34626688 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2021.104285] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2021] [Revised: 09/19/2021] [Accepted: 10/01/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Invertebrates are the protagonists of a recent paradigm shift because they now show that vertebrates are not the only group with immune memory. This review discusses the concept of immune priming, its characteristics, and differences with trained immunity and immune enhancement. We include an update of the current status of immune priming within generations in different groups of invertebrates which now include work in 5 Phyla: Ctenophora, Cnidaria, Mollusca, Nematoda, and Arthropoda. Clearly, few Phyla have been studied. We also resume and discuss the effector mechanism related to immune memory, including integrating viral elements into the genome, endoreplication, and epigenetics. The roles of other elements are incorporated, such as hemocytes, immune pathways, and metabolisms. We conclude that taking care of the experimental procedure will discern if results provide or do not support the invertebrates' immune memory and that regarding mechanisms, indeed, there are no studies on the immune memory mechanisms, this is how specificity is reached, and how and where the immune memory is stored and how is recall upon subsequent encounters. Finally, we discuss the possibility of having more than one mechanism working in different groups of invertebrates depending on the environmental conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Humberto Lanz-Mendoza
- Centro de Investigaciones sobre Enfermedades Infecciosas, INSP, Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico.
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Sułek M, Kordaczuk J, Wojda I. Current understanding of immune priming phenomena in insects. J Invertebr Pathol 2021; 185:107656. [PMID: 34464656 DOI: 10.1016/j.jip.2021.107656] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2021] [Revised: 08/21/2021] [Accepted: 08/24/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
It may seem that the most important issues related to insect immunity have already been described. However, novel phenomena observed in recent years shed new light on the understanding of the immune response in insects.The adaptive abilities of insects helped them to populate all ecological land niches.One important adaptive ability of insects that facilitates their success is the plasticity of their immune system. Although they only have innate immune mechanisms, insects can increase their resistance after the first encounter with the pathogen. In recent years, this phenomenon,namedimmunepriming, has become a "hot topic" in immunobiology.Priming can occur within or across generations. In the first case, the resistance of a given individual can increase after surviving a previous infection. Transstadial immune priming occurs when infection takes place at one of the initial developmental stages and increased resistance is observed at the pupal or imago stages. Priming across generations (transgenerationalimmune priming, TGIP) relies on the increased resistance of the offspring when one or both parents are infected during their lifetime.Despite the attention that immune priming has received, basic questions remain to be answered, such as regulation of immune priming at the molecular level. Research indicates that pathogen recognition receptors (PRRs) can be involved in the priming phenomenon. Recent studies have highlighted the special role of microRNAs and epigenetics, which can influence expression of genes that can be transmitted through generations although they are not encoded in the nucleotide sequence. Considerable amounts of research are required to fully understand the mechanisms that regulate priming phenomena. The aim of our work is to analyse thoroughly the most important information on immune priming in insects and help raise pertinent questions such that a greater understanding of this phenomenon can be obtained in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michał Sułek
- Maria Curie-Skłodowska University, Institute of Biological Sciences, Department of Immunobiology, Akademicka 19, Lublin 20-033, Poland.
| | - Jakub Kordaczuk
- Maria Curie-Skłodowska University, Institute of Biological Sciences, Department of Immunobiology, Akademicka 19, Lublin 20-033, Poland
| | - Iwona Wojda
- Maria Curie-Skłodowska University, Institute of Biological Sciences, Department of Immunobiology, Akademicka 19, Lublin 20-033, Poland.
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Knutelski S, Awad M, Łukasz N, Bukowski M, Śmiałek J, Suder P, Dubin G, Mak P. Isolation, Identification, and Bioinformatic Analysis of Antibacterial Proteins and Peptides from Immunized Hemolymph of Red Palm Weevil Rhynchophorus ferrugineus. Biomolecules 2021; 11:83. [PMID: 33440876 DOI: 10.3390/biom11010083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2020] [Revised: 01/01/2021] [Accepted: 01/05/2021] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Red palm weevil (Rhynchophorus ferrugineus Olivier, 1791, Coleoptera: Curculionidae) is a destructive pest of palms, rapidly extending its native geographical range and causing large economic losses worldwide. The present work describes isolation, identification, and bioinformatic analysis of antibacterial proteins and peptides from the immunized hemolymph of this beetle. In total, 17 different bactericidal or bacteriostatic compounds were isolated via a series of high-pressure liquid chromatography steps, and their partial amino acid sequences were determined by N-terminal sequencing or by mass spectrometry. The bioinformatic analysis of the results facilitated identification and description of corresponding nucleotide coding sequences for each peptide and protein, based on the recently published R. ferrugineus transcriptome database. The identified compounds are represented by several well-known bactericidal factors: two peptides similar to defensins, one cecropin-A1-like peptide, and one attacin-B-like protein. Interestingly, we have also identified some unexpected compounds comprising five isoforms of pheromone-binding proteins as well as seven isoforms of odorant-binding proteins. The particular role of these factors in insect response to bacterial infection needs further investigation.
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Wojda I, Staniec B, Sułek M, Kordaczuk J. The greater wax moth Galleria mellonella: biology and use in immune studies. Pathog Dis 2020; 78:ftaa057. [PMID: 32970818 PMCID: PMC7683414 DOI: 10.1093/femspd/ftaa057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2020] [Accepted: 09/28/2020] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
The greater wax moth Galleria mellonella is an invertebrate that is increasingly being used in scientific research. Its ease of reproduction, numerous offspring, short development cycle, and finally, its known genome and immune-related transcriptome provide a convenient research model for investigation of insect immunity at biochemical and molecular levels. Galleria immunity, consisting of only innate mechanisms, shows adaptive plasticity, which has recently become the subject of intensive scientific research. This insect serves as a mini host in studies of the pathogenicity of microorganisms and in vivo tests of the effectiveness of single virulence factors as well as new antimicrobial compounds. Certainly, the Galleria mellonella species deserves our attention and appreciation for its contribution to the development of research on innate immune mechanisms. In this review article, we describe the biology of the greater wax moth, summarise the main advantages of using it as a model organism and present some of the main techniques facilitating work with this insect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iwona Wojda
- Maria Curie Sklodowska University, Institute of Biological Sciences, Department of Immunobiology, Akademicka 19, 20-033 Lublin, Poland
| | - Bernard Staniec
- Maria Curie Sklodowska University, Institute of Biological Sciences, Department of Zoology and Nature Protection, Akademicka 19, 20-033 Lublin, Poland
| | - Michał Sułek
- Maria Curie Sklodowska University, Institute of Biological Sciences, Department of Immunobiology, Akademicka 19, 20-033 Lublin, Poland
| | - Jakub Kordaczuk
- Maria Curie Sklodowska University, Institute of Biological Sciences, Department of Immunobiology, Akademicka 19, 20-033 Lublin, Poland
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Vertyporokh L, Wojda I. Immune response of Galleria mellonella after injection with non-lethal and lethal dosages of Candida albicans. J Invertebr Pathol 2020; 170:107327. [PMID: 31945326 DOI: 10.1016/j.jip.2020.107327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2019] [Revised: 01/08/2020] [Accepted: 01/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The immune response of Galleria mellonella to injection with non-lethal and lethal dosages of Candida albicans was compared. Larvae infected with the non-lethal dosage (2 × 104 cells/larva) did not show significant morphological changes, while those infected with the lethal dosage (2 × 105 cells/larva) showed inhibition of motility and cocoon formation and became darker around the area of injection after 24 h. While the administration of the lower dosage caused approx. 5- and 20-fold induction of genes for gallerimycin and galiomycin, respectively, the injection with the higher dosage induced approx. 25 and 120-fold expression of the respective genes. Similar differences were obtained for the insect metalloproteinase inhibitor (IMPI) and hemolin gene transcripts. The relatively low level of immune gene expression was confirmed by an assay of hemolymph antifungal activity, which was detected only in larvae infected with lethal dosage of C. albicans. Furthermore, greater amounts of immune-inducible peptides were detected in the hemolymph extracts in the same group of larvae. The stronger humoral immune response was not correlated with survival. Phenol oxidase (PO) activity was induced only in the hemolymph of larvae infected with the non-lethal dose; injection of the lethal dose resulted in strong inhibition of this enzyme after 24 h. We showed that PO is susceptible to regulation by immune priming with the non-lethal dose of C. albicans. The activity of this enzyme was enhanced in primed larvae at the time of re-injection. When both primed and non-primed larvae received 2 × 105 cells, the inhibition of PO was stronger in the primed group. G. mellonella infected with the lethal dose of C. albicans died despite the strong induction of humoral defence mechanisms. The priming-enhanced activity of PO was correlated with increased resistance to subsequent infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lidiia Vertyporokh
- Maria Curie Skłodowska University, Institute of Biological Sciences, Department of Immunobiology, Lublin, Poland
| | - Iwona Wojda
- Maria Curie Skłodowska University, Institute of Biological Sciences, Department of Immunobiology, Lublin, Poland.
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Abstract
The composition of insect hemolymph can change depending on many factors, e.g. access to nutrients, stress conditions, and current needs of the insect. In this chapter, insect immune-related polypeptides, which can be permanently or occasionally present in the hemolymph, are described. Their division into peptides or low-molecular weight proteins is not always determined by the length or secondary structure of a given molecule but also depends on the mode of action in insect immunity and, therefore, it is rather arbitrary. Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) with their role in immunity, modes of action, and classification are presented in the chapter, followed by a short description of some examples: cecropins, moricins, defensins, proline- and glycine-rich peptides. Further, we will describe selected immune-related proteins that may participate in immune recognition, may possess direct antimicrobial properties, or can be involved in the modulation of insect immunity by both abiotic and biotic factors. We briefly cover Fibrinogen-Related Proteins (FREPs), Down Syndrome Cell Adhesion Molecules (Dscam), Hemolin, Lipophorins, Lysozyme, Insect Metalloproteinase Inhibitor (IMPI), and Heat Shock Proteins. The reader will obtain a partial picture presenting molecules participating in one of the most efficient immune strategies found in the animal world, which allow insects to inhabit all ecological land niches in the world.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iwona Wojda
- Department of Immunobiology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Maria Curie-Skłodowska University, Lublin, Poland.
| | - Małgorzata Cytryńska
- Department of Immunobiology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Maria Curie-Skłodowska University, Lublin, Poland
| | - Agnieszka Zdybicka-Barabas
- Department of Immunobiology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Maria Curie-Skłodowska University, Lublin, Poland
| | - Jakub Kordaczuk
- Department of Immunobiology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Maria Curie-Skłodowska University, Lublin, Poland
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