Effects of extrusion process on Fusarium and Alternaria mycotoxins in whole grain triticale flour

Local Sources of Protein in Low- and Middle-Income Countries: How to Improve the Protein Quality?

Protein inadequacy is a major contributor to nutritional deficiencies and adverse health outcomes of populations in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). People in LMICs often consume a diet predominantly based on staple crops, such as cereals or starches, and derive most of their daily protein intakes from these sources. However, plant-based sources of protein often contain low levels of indispensable amino acids (IAAs). Inadequate intake of IAA in comparison with daily requirements is a limiting factor that results in protein deficiency, consequently in the long-term stunting and wasting. In addition, plant-based sources contain factors such as antinutrients that can diminish protein digestion and absorption. This review describes factors that affect protein quality, reviews dietary patterns of populations in LMICs and discusses traditional and novel small- and large-scale techniques that can improve the quality of plant protein sources for enhanced protein bioavailability and digestibility as an approach to tackle malnutrition in LMICs. The more accessible small-scale food-processing techniques that can be implemented at home in LMICs include soaking, cooking, and germination, whereas many large-scale techniques must be implemented on an industrial level such as autoclaving and extrusion. Limitations and considerations to implement those techniques locally in LMICs are discussed. For instance, at-home processing techniques can cause loss of nutrients and contamination, whereas limitations with larger scale techniques include high energy requirements, costs, and safety considerations. This review suggests that combining these small- and large-scale approaches could improve the quality of local sources of proteins, and thereby address adverse health outcomes, particularly in vulnerable population groups such as children, adolescents, elderly, and pregnant and lactating women.

Reduction of Alternaria Toxins via the Extrusion Processing of Whole-Grain Red Sorghum Flour

This study delved into the impact of two extrusion processing parameters-screw speed (SS at 400, 600, 800 RPM) and material moisture content in the extruder barrel (M at 12, 15, 18%) at constant feed rate (50 kg/h)-on reducing the content of alternariol (AOH), alternariol monomethyl ether (AME), tenuazonic acid (TeA), and tentoxin (TEN) in whole-grain red sorghum flour. Ultra-performance liquid chromatography combined with a triple-quadrupole mass spectrometer (UPLC-MS/MS) was employed for the determination of Alternaria toxin levels. The extruder die temperature fluctuated between 136 and 177 °C, with die pressures ranging from 0.16 to 6.23 MPa. The specific mechanical energy spanned from 83.5 to 152.3 kWh/t, the torque varied between 88 and 162.8 Nm, and the average material retention time in the barrel ranged from 5.6 to 13 s. The optimal parameters for reducing the concentration of all Alternaria toxins with a satisfactory quality of the sorghum snacks were: SS = 400 RPM, M = 12%, with a reduction of 61.4, 76.4, 12.1, and 50.8% for AOH, AME, TeA, and TEN, respectively.

A comparative review on methods of detection and quantification of mycotoxins in solid food and feed: a focus on cereals and nuts

Many emerging factors and circumstances urge the need to develop and optimize the detection and quantification techniques of mycotoxins in solid food and feed. The diversity of mycotoxins, which have different properties and affinities, makes the standardization of the analytical procedures and the adoption of a single protocol that covers the attributes of all mycotoxins a tedious or even an impossible mission. Several modifications and improvements have been undergone in order to optimize the performance of these methods including the extraction solvents, the extraction methods, the clean-up procedures, and the analytical techniques. The techniques range from the rapid screening methods, which lack sensitivity and specificity such as TLC, to a spectrum of more advanced protocols, namely, ELISA, HPLC, and GC-MS and LC-MS/MS. This review aims at assessing the current studies related to these analytical techniques of mycotoxins in solid food and feed. It discusses and evaluates, through a critical approach, various sample treatment techniques, and provides an in-depth examination of different mycotoxin detection methods. Furthermore, it includes a comparison of their actual accuracy and a thorough analysis of the observed benefits and drawbacks.

Composition-Based Risk Estimation of Mycotoxins in Dry Dog Foods

The risk of mycotoxins co-occurrence in extrusion-produced dry foods increases due to their composition based on various grains and vegetables. This study aimed to validate a risk estimation for the association between ingredients and the ELISA-detected levels of DON, FUM, ZEA, AFs, T2, and OTA in 34 dry dog food products. The main ingredients were corn, beet, and oil of different origins (of equal frequency, 79.41%), rice (67.6%), and wheat (50%). DON and FUM had the strongest positive correlation (0.635, p = 0.001). The presence of corn in the sample composition increased the median DON and ZEA levels, respectively, by 99.45 μg/kg and 65.64 μg/kg, p = 0.011. In addition to DON and ZEA levels, integral corn presence increased the FUM median levels by 886.61 μg/kg, p = 0.005. For corn gluten flour-containing samples, DON, FUM, and ZEA median differences still existed, and OTA levels also differed by 1.99 μg/kg, p < 0.001. Corn gluten flour presence was strongly associated with DON levels > 403.06 μg/kg (OR = 38.4, RR = 9.90, p = 0.002), FUM levels > 1097.56 μg/kg (OR = 5.56, RR = 1.45, p = 0.048), ZEA levels > 136.88 μg/kg (OR = 23.00, RR = 3.09, p = 0.002), and OTA levels > 3.93 μg/kg (OR = 24.00, RR = 3.09, p = 0.002). Our results suggest that some ingredients or combinations should be avoided due to their risk of increasing mycotoxin levels.

Single, Subsequent, or Simultaneous Treatments to Mitigate Mycotoxins in Solid Foods and Feeds: A Critical Review

Mycotoxins in solid foods and feeds jeopardize the public health of humans and animals and cause food security issues. The inefficacy of most preventive measures to control the production of fungi in foods and feeds during the pre-harvest and post-harvest stages incited interest in the mitigation of these mycotoxins that can be conducted by the application of various chemical, physical, and/or biological treatments. These treatments are implemented separately or through a combination of two or more treatments simultaneously or subsequently. The reduction rates of the methods differ greatly, as do their effect on the organoleptic attributes, nutritional quality, and the environment. This critical review aims at summarizing the latest studies related to the mitigation of mycotoxins in solid foods and feeds. It discusses and evaluates the single and combined mycotoxin reduction treatments, compares their efficiency, elaborates on their advantages and disadvantages, and sheds light on the treated foods or feeds, as well as on their environmental impact.