The genesis of retinal architecture: an emerging role for mechanical interactions?

Pten regulates endocytic trafficking of cell adhesion and Wnt signaling molecules to pattern the retina

The retina is exquisitely patterned, with neuronal somata positioned at regular intervals to completely sample the visual field. Here, we show that phosphatase and tensin homolog (Pten) controls starburst amacrine cell spacing by modulating vesicular trafficking of cell adhesion molecules and Wnt proteins. Single-cell transcriptomics and double-mutant analyses revealed that Pten and Down syndrome cell adhesion molecule Dscam) are co-expressed and function additively to pattern starburst amacrine cell mosaics. Mechanistically, Pten loss accelerates the endocytic trafficking of DSCAM, FAT3, and MEGF10 off the cell membrane and into endocytic vesicles in amacrine cells. Accordingly, the vesicular proteome, a molecular signature of the cell of origin, is enriched in exocytosis, vesicle-mediated transport, and receptor internalization proteins in Pten conditional knockout (PtencKO) retinas. Wnt signaling molecules are also enriched in PtencKO retinal vesicles, and the genetic or pharmacological disruption of Wnt signaling phenocopies amacrine cell patterning defects. Pten thus controls vesicular trafficking of cell adhesion and signaling molecules to establish retinal amacrine cell mosaics.

Ontogeny of collective behaviour

During their lifetime, superorganisms, like unitary organisms, undergo transformations that change the machinery of their collective behaviour. Here, we suggest that these transformations are largely understudied and propose that more systematic research into the ontogeny of collective behaviours is needed if we hope to better understand the link between proximate behavioural mechanisms and the development of collective adaptive functions. In particular, certain social insects engage in self-assemblage, forming dynamic and physically connected architectures with striking similarities to developing multicellular organisms, making them good model systems for ontogenetic studies of collective behaviour. However, exhaustive time series and three-dimensional data are required to thoroughly characterize the different life stages of the collective structures and the transitions between these stages. The well-established fields of embryology and developmental biology offer practical tools and theoretical frameworks that could speed up the acquisition of new knowledge about the formation, development, maturity and dissolution of social insect self-assemblages and, by extension, other superorganismal behaviours. We hope that this review will encourage an expansion of the ontogenetic perspective in the field of collective behaviour and, in particular, in self-assemblage research, which has far-reaching applications in robotics, computer science and regenerative medicine. This article is part of a discussion meeting issue 'Collective behaviour through time'.

Potential therapeutic strategies for photoreceptor degeneration: the path to restore vision

Photoreceptors (PRs), as the most abundant and light-sensing cells of the neuroretina, are responsible for converting light into electrical signals that can be interpreted by the brain. PR degeneration, including morphological and functional impairment of these cells, causes significant diminution of the retina's ability to detect light, with consequent loss of vision. Recent findings in ocular regenerative medicine have opened promising avenues to apply neuroprotective therapy, gene therapy, cell replacement therapy, and visual prostheses to the challenge of restoring vision. However, successful visual restoration in the clinical setting requires application of these therapeutic approaches at the appropriate stage of the retinal degeneration. In this review, firstly, we discuss the mechanisms of PR degeneration by focusing on the molecular mechanisms underlying cell death. Subsequently, innovations, recent developments, and promising treatments based on the stage of disorder progression are further explored. Then, the challenges to be addressed before implementation of these therapies in clinical practice are considered. Finally, potential solutions to overcome the current limitations of this growing research area are suggested. Overall, the majority of current treatment modalities are still at an early stage of development and require extensive additional studies, both pre-clinical and clinical, before full restoration of visual function in PR degeneration diseases can be realized.

Amoeboid-like migration ensures correct horizontal cell layer formation in the developing vertebrate retina

Migration of cells in the developing brain is integral for the establishment of neural circuits and function of the central nervous system. While migration modes during which neurons employ predetermined directional guidance of either preexisting neuronal processes or underlying cells have been well explored, less is known about how cells featuring multipolar morphology migrate in the dense environment of the developing brain. To address this, we here investigated multipolar migration of horizontal cells in the zebrafish retina. We found that these cells feature several hallmarks of amoeboid-like migration that enable them to tailor their movements to the spatial constraints of the crowded retina. These hallmarks include cell and nuclear shape changes, as well as persistent rearward polarization of stable F-actin. Interference with the organization of the developing retina by changing nuclear properties or overall tissue architecture hampers efficient horizontal cell migration and layer formation showing that cell-tissue interplay is crucial for this process. In view of the high proportion of multipolar migration phenomena observed in brain development, the here uncovered amoeboid-like migration mode might be conserved in other areas of the developing nervous system.

The Application of Biomaterials to Tissue Engineering Neural Retina and Retinal Pigment Epithelium

The prevalence of degenerative retinal disease is ever increasing as life expectancy rises globally. The human retina fails to regenerate and the use of human embryonic stem cells (hESCs) and human-induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs) to engineer retinal tissue is of particular interest due to the limited availability of suitable allogeneic or autologous tissue. Retinal tissue and its development are well characterized, which have resulted in robust assays to assess the development of tissue-engineered retina. Retinal tissue can be generated in vitro from hESCs and hiPSCs without biomaterial scaffolds, but despite advancements, protocols remain slow, expensive, and fail to result in mature functional tissue. Several recent studies have demonstrated the potential of biomaterial scaffolds to enhance generation of hESC/hiPSC-derived retinal tissue, including synthetic polymers, silk, alginate, hyaluronic acid, and extracellular matrix molecules. This review outlines the advances that have been made toward tissue-engineered neural retina and retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) for clinical application in recent years, including the success of clinical trials involving transplantation of cells and tissue to promote retinal repair; and the evidence from in vitro and animal studies that biomaterials can enhance development and integration of retinal tissue.

Hamartoma-like lesions in the mouse retina: an animal model of Pten hamartoma tumour syndrome

PTEN hamartoma tumour syndrome (PHTS) is a heterogeneous group of rare, autosomal dominant disorders associated with PTEN germline mutations. PHTS patients routinely develop hamartomas, which are benign tissue overgrowths comprised of disorganized 'normal' cells. Efforts to generate PHTS animal models have been largely unsuccessful due to the early lethality of homozygous germline mutations in Pten, together with the lack of hamartoma formation in most conditional mutants generated to date. We report herein a novel PHTS mouse model that reproducibly forms hamartoma-like lesions in the central retina by postnatal day 21. Specifically, we generated a Pten conditional knockout (cKO) using a retinal-specific Pax6::Cre driver that leads to a nearly complete deletion of Pten in the peripheral retina but produces a mosaic of 'wild-type' and Pten cKO cells centrally. Structural defects were only observed in the mosaic central retina, including in Müller glia and in the outer and inner limiting membranes, suggesting that defective mechanical integrity partly underlies the hamartoma-like pathology. Finally, we used this newly developed model to test whether rapamycin, an mTOR inhibitor that is currently the only PHTS therapy, can block hamartoma growth. When administered in the early postnatal period, prior to hamartoma formation, rapamycin reduces hamartoma size, but also induces new morphological abnormalities in the Pten cKO retinal periphery. In contrast, administration of rapamycin after hamartoma initiation fails to reduce lesion size. We have thus generated and used an animal model of retinal PHTS to show that, although current therapies can reduce hamartoma formation, they might also induce new retinal dysmorphologies.This article has an associated First Person interview with the first author of the paper.

Improvement of Photoreceptor Targeting via Intravitreal Delivery in Mouse and Human Retina Using Combinatory rAAV2 Capsid Mutant Vectors

Purpose

Effective intravitreal gene delivery to cells of the central retina (i.e., photoreceptors) would be of substantial benefit for treating patients with retinal diseases, such as achromatopsia, where retinal detachment from a subretinal may be harmful. Previous studies demonstrated that mutation of the recombinant adeno-associated virus (rAAV) capsid through introduction of peptide insertions or amino acid substitutions dramatically alters vector tropism. Herein, we evaluate the photoreceptor transduction efficiency of three rAAV2/2-based capsid mutant vectors: rAAV2/2[7m8], rAAV2/2[QuadYF+TV], and a chimeric vector incorporating both mutations (termed rAAV2/2[MAX]) following intravitreal delivery in mice. Furthermore, we evaluate the transduction efficiency of rAAV2/2[MAX] using explanted human central retinal samples to address clinical translatability.

Methods

Vectors containing a GFP or mCherry reporter gene were intravitreally injected into C57BL/6J or Nrl-EGFP mice, respectively. Transduction was assessed in vivo utilizing a custom multiline confocal scanning laser ophthalmoscope. Injected Nrl-EGFP mouse retinas were used to quantify transduced photoreceptors using flow cytometry. Postmortem human retinal tissue was cultured following administration of rAAV2/2[MAX]. C57BL/6J retinas and human explants were cryosectioned to determine vector tropism.

Results

The chimeric vector rAAV2/2[MAX] transduced significantly higher proportions of the retina than did either single mutant serotypes following intravitreal delivery in murine retina, including inner retinal cells and photoreceptors. Vector rAAV2[MAX] demonstrated transduction of human photoreceptors and ganglion cells.

Conclusions

Transduction observed via rAAV2/2[MAX] indicates that combining mutations with complementary mechanisms of action in a single vector results in enhanced transduction. rAAV2/2[MAX] also presented the ability to transduce human photoreceptors and ganglion cells, indicating potential for efficient intravitreal vector delivery.

Independent modes of ganglion cell translocation ensure correct lamination of the zebrafish retina

Icha et al. show that retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) can move by two different modes across the embryonic zebrafish retina and that correct RGC translocation is crucial for neuronal lamination and retinal development.

The arrangement of neurons into distinct layers is critical for neuronal connectivity and function. During development, most neurons move from their birthplace to the appropriate layer, where they polarize. However, kinetics and modes of many neuronal translocation events still await exploration. In this study, we investigate retinal ganglion cell (RGC) translocation across the embryonic zebrafish retina. After completing their translocation, RGCs establish the most basal retinal layer where they form the optic nerve. Using in toto light sheet microscopy, we show that somal translocation of RGCs is a fast and directed event. It depends on basal process attachment and stabilized microtubules. Interestingly, interference with somal translocation induces a switch to multipolar migration. This multipolar mode is less efficient but still leads to successful RGC layer formation. When both modes are inhibited though, RGCs fail to translocate and induce lamination defects. This indicates that correct RGC translocation is crucial for subsequent retinal lamination.

A Disintegrin and Metalloproteinase10 (ADAM10) Regulates NOTCH Signaling during Early Retinal Development

ADAM10 and ADAM17 are two closely related members of the ADAM (a disintegrin and metalloprotease) family of membrane-bound sheddases, which proteolytically cleave surface membrane proteins. Both ADAM10 and ADAM17 have been implicated in the proteolytic cleavage of NOTCH receptors and as such regulators of NOTCH signaling. During retinal development, NOTCH signaling facilitates retinal neurogenesis by maintaining progenitor cells in a proliferative state and by mediating retinal cell fates. However, the roles of ADAM10 and ADAM17 in the retina are not well defined. In this study, we set out to clarify the roles of ADAM10 and ADAM17 during early retinal development. The retinal phenotype of conditionally abated Adam17 retinae (Adam17 CKO) did not differ from the controls whereas conditionally ablated Adam10 retinae (Adam10 CKO) exhibited abnormal morphogenesis characterized by the formation of rosettes and a loss of retinal laminae phenotypically similar to morphological abnormalities identified in mice with retinal NOTCH signaling deficiency. Additionally, Adam10 CKO retinae exhibited abnormal neurogenesis characterized by fewer proliferating progenitor cells and greater differentiation of early photoreceptors and retinal ganglion cells. Moreover, constitutive activation of the NOTCH1-intracellular domain (N1-ICD) rescued Adam10 CKO abnormal neurogenesis, as well as abnormal retinal morphology by maintaining retinal cells in the progenitor state. Collectively these findings provide in vivo genetic evidence that ADAM10, and not ADAM17, is indispensable for proper retinal development as a regulator of NOTCH signaling.

Simulating cortical development as a self constructing process: a novel multi-scale approach combining molecular and physical aspects

Current models of embryological development focus on intracellular processes such as gene expression and protein networks, rather than on the complex relationship between subcellular processes and the collective cellular organization these processes support. We have explored this collective behavior in the context of neocortical development, by modeling the expansion of a small number of progenitor cells into a laminated cortex with layer and cell type specific projections. The developmental process is steered by a formal language analogous to genomic instructions, and takes place in a physically realistic three-dimensional environment. A common genome inserted into individual cells control their individual behaviors, and thereby gives rise to collective developmental sequences in a biologically plausible manner. The simulation begins with a single progenitor cell containing the artificial genome. This progenitor then gives rise through a lineage of offspring to distinct populations of neuronal precursors that migrate to form the cortical laminae. The precursors differentiate by extending dendrites and axons, which reproduce the experimentally determined branching patterns of a number of different neuronal cell types observed in the cat visual cortex. This result is the first comprehensive demonstration of the principles of self-construction whereby the cortical architecture develops. In addition, our model makes several testable predictions concerning cell migration and branching mechanisms.

The proper operation of the brain depends on the correct developmental wiring of billions of neurons. Understanding this process of living self-construction is crucial not only for biological explanation and medical therapy, but could also provide an entirely new approach to industrial fabrication. We are approaching this problem through detailed simulation of cortical development. We have previously presented a software package that allows for simulation of cellular growth in a 3D space that respects physical forces and diffusion of substances, as well as an instruction language for specifying biologically plausible ‘genetic codes’. Here we apply this novel formalism to understanding the principles of cortical development in the context of multiple, spatially distributed agents that communicate only by local metabolic messages.

Materials characterization and mechanobiology of the eye

The eye responds to a great deal of internal and external stimuli throughout its normal function. Due to this, a mechanical or chemical analysis alone is insufficient. A systematic materials characterization is needed. A mechanobiological approach is required for a full understanding of the unique properties and function of the eye. This review compiles the mechanical properties of select eye components, summarizes mechanical and chemical testing platforms, and overviews modeling approaches. Analysis is done across studies, experimental methods, and between species in order to summarize what is known about the mechanobiology of the eye. Several opportunities for future research are identified.

DSCAMs: restoring balance to developmental forces

Many of the models of neurodevelopmental processes such as cell migration, axon outgrowth, and dendrite arborization involve cell adhesion and chemoattraction as critical physical or mechanical aspects of the mechanism. However, the prevention of adhesion or attraction is under-appreciated as a necessary, active process that balances these forces, insuring that the correct cells are present and adhering in the correct place at the correct time. The phenomenon of not adhering is often viewed as the passive alternative to adhesion, and in some cases this may be true. However, it is becoming increasingly clear that active signaling pathways are involved in preventing adhesion. These provide a balancing force during development that prevents overly exuberant adhesion, which would otherwise disrupt normal cellular and tissue morphogenesis. The strength of chemoattractive signals may be similarly modulated. Recent studies, described here, suggest that Down Syndrome Cell Adhesion Molecule (DSCAM), and closely related proteins such as DSCAML1, may play an important developmental role as such balancers in multiple systems.

Candidate molecular mechanisms for establishing cell identity in the developing retina

In the developing nervous system, individual neurons must occupy appropriate positions within circuits. This requires that these neurons recognize and form connections with specific pre- and postsynaptic partners. Cellular recognition is also required for the spacing of cell bodies and the arborization of dendrites, factors that determine the inputs onto a given neuron. These issues are particularly evident in the retina, where different types of neurons are evenly spaced relative to other cells of the same type. This establishes a reiterated columnar circuitry resembling the insect retina. Establishing these mosaic patterns requires that cells of a given type (homotypic cells) be able to sense their neighbors. Therefore, both synaptic specificity and mosaic spacing require cellular identifiers. In synaptic specificity, recognition often occurs between different types of cells in a pre- and postsynaptic pairing. In mosaic spacing, recognition is often occurring between different cells of the same type, orhomotypic self-recognition. Dendritic arborization can require recognition of different neurites of the same cell, or isoneuronal self-recognition. The retina is an extremely amenable system for studying the molecular identifiers that drive these various forms of recognition. The different neuronal types in the retina are well defined, and the genetic tools for marking cell types are increasingly available. In this review we will summarize retinal anatomy and describe cell types in the retina and how they are defined. We will then describe the requirements of a recognition code and discuss newly emerging candidate molecular mechanisms for recognition that may meet these requirements.

Cell-type specific roles for PTEN in establishing a functional retinal architecture

Background

The retina has a unique three-dimensional architecture, the precise organization of which allows for complete sampling of the visual field. Along the radial or apicobasal axis, retinal neurons and their dendritic and axonal arbors are segregated into layers, while perpendicular to this axis, in the tangential plane, four of the six neuronal types form patterned cellular arrays, or mosaics. Currently, the molecular cues that control retinal cell positioning are not well-understood, especially those that operate in the tangential plane. Here we investigated the role of the PTEN phosphatase in establishing a functional retinal architecture.

Methodology/Principal Findings

In the developing retina, PTEN was localized preferentially to ganglion, amacrine and horizontal cells, whose somata are distributed in mosaic patterns in the tangential plane. Generation of a retina-specific Pten knock-out resulted in retinal ganglion, amacrine and horizontal cell hypertrophy, and expansion of the inner plexiform layer. The spacing of Pten mutant mosaic populations was also aberrant, as were the arborization and fasciculation patterns of their processes, displaying cell type-specific defects in the radial and tangential dimensions. Irregular oscillatory potentials were also observed in Pten mutant electroretinograms, indicative of asynchronous amacrine cell firing. Furthermore, while Pten mutant RGC axons targeted appropriate brain regions, optokinetic spatial acuity was reduced in Pten mutant animals. Finally, while some features of the Pten mutant retina appeared similar to those reported in Dscam-mutant mice, PTEN expression and activity were normal in the absence of Dscam.

Conclusions/Significance

We conclude that Pten regulates somal positioning and neurite arborization patterns of a subset of retinal cells that form mosaics, likely functioning independently of Dscam, at least during the embryonic period. Our findings thus reveal an unexpected level of cellular specificity for the multi-purpose phosphatase, and identify Pten as an integral component of a novel cell positioning pathway in the retina.

Atomic force microscopy and its contribution to understanding the development of the nervous system

While our understanding of the influence of biochemical signaling on cell functioning is increasing rapidly, the consequences of mechanical signaling are currently poorly understood. However, cells of the nervous system respond to their mechanical environment; their mechanosensitivity has important implications for development and disease. Atomic force microscopy provides a powerful technique to investigate the mechanical interaction of cells with their environment with high resolution. This method can be used to obtain high-resolution surface topographies, stiffness maps, and apply well-defined forces to samples at different length scales. This review summarizes recent advances of atomic force microscopy, provides an overview about state-of-the-art measurements, and suggests directions for future applications to investigate the involvement of mechanics in the development of the nervous system.

DSCAM and DSCAML1 function in self-avoidance in multiple cell types in the developing mouse retina

DSCAM and DSCAM-LIKE1 (DSCAML1) serve diverse neurodevelopmental functions, including axon guidance, synaptic adhesion, and self-avoidance, depending on the species, cell type, and gene family member studied. We examined the function of DSCAM and DSCAML1 in the developing mouse retina. In addition to a subset of amacrine cells, Dscam was expressed in most retinal ganglion cells (RGCs). RGCs had fasciculated dendrites and clumped cell bodies in Dscam(-/-) mice, suggesting a role in self-avoidance. Dscaml1 was expressed in the rod circuit, and mice lacking Dscaml1 had fasciculated rod bipolar cell dendrites and clumped AII amacrine cell bodies, also indicating a role in self-avoidance. Neurons in Dscam or Dscaml1 mutant retinas stratified their processes appropriately in synaptic laminae in the inner plexiform layer, and functional synapses formed in the rod circuit in mice lacking Dscaml1. Therefore, DSCAM and DSCAML1 function similarly in self-avoidance, and are not essential for synaptic specificity in the mouse retina.

Targeted deletion of the zebrafish obscurin A RhoGEF domain affects heart, skeletal muscle and brain development

Obscurin is a giant structural and signaling protein that participates in the assembly and structural integrity of striated myofibrils. Previous work has examined the physical interactions between obscurin and other cytoskeletal elements but its in vivo role in cell signaling, including the functions of its RhoGTPase Exchange Factor (RhoGEF) domain have not been characterized. In this study, morpholino antisense oligonucleotides were used to create an in-frame deletion of the active site of the obscurin A RhoGEF domain in order to examine its functions in zebrafish development. Cardiac myocytes in the morphant embryos lacked the intercalated disks that were present in controls by 72 and, in the more severely affected embryos, the contractile filaments were not organized into mature sarcomeres. Neural abnormalities included delay or loss of retinal lamination. Rescue of the phenotype with co-injection of mini-obscurin A expression constructs demonstrated that the observed effects were due to the loss of small GTPase activation by obscurin A. The immature phenotype of the cardiac myocytes and the retinal neuroblasts observed in the morphant embryos suggests that obscurin A-mediated small GTPase signaling promotes tissue-specific cellular differentiation. This is the first demonstration of the importance of the obscurin A-mediated RhoGEF signaling in vertebrate organogenesis and highlights the central role of obscurin A in striated muscle and neural development.

Adhesion molecules in establishing retinal circuitry

The formation of neural circuits requires molecular mechanisms to confer cell identity, to establish appropriate dendritic arbors, and to space cell bodies within the groups of homotypic neurons. Recent work in a variety of organisms has implicated cell adhesion molecules in these processes. The DSCAMs in particular have functions including cell identity and self-avoidance through repulsion in Drosophila, differential adhesion and synaptic pairing in chick retina, and the masking of adhesion within specific cell types in the mouse retina. These differences in molecular function between different organisms, and potentially different cell types within a single tissue, emphasize how seemingly subtle distinctions may be important for deciphering this molecular adhesion code.

Dicer inactivation leads to progressive functional and structural degeneration of the mouse retina

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small, highly conserved molecules that have been shown to regulate the expression of genes by binding to specific target mRNAs. Dicer, an RNase III endonuclease, is essential for the production and function of mature miRNAs, and removal of Dicer has been shown to disrupt many developmental processes. In this study, Dicer was removed specifically from the retina using a floxed Dicer conditional allele and the retinal Chx10Cre transgene. Retinal Dicer knock-out mice displayed a reproducible inability to respond to light. In addition, morphological defects were observed with the formation of photoreceptor rosettes at postnatal day 16, which progressed to more general cellular disorganization and widespread degeneration of retinal cell types as the animals aged. This was accompanied by concomitant decrease in both scotopic and photopic electroretinogram (ERG) responses. Interestingly, removing a single allele of Dicer resulted in ERG deficits throughout life but not to morphological abnormalities. Northern blot analysis of Dicer-depleted retinas showed a decrease in several miRNAs. The observation that progressive retinal degeneration occurred after removal of Dicer raises the possibility that miRNAs are involved in retinal neurodegenerative disorders.