1
|
Vicente ED, Figueiredo D, Alves C. Toxicity of particulate emissions from residential biomass combustion: An overview of in vitro studies using cell models. Sci Total Environ 2024; 927:171999. [PMID: 38554951 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.171999] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2024] [Revised: 03/07/2024] [Accepted: 03/24/2024] [Indexed: 04/02/2024]
Abstract
This article aims to critically review the current state of knowledge on in vitro toxicological assessments of particulate emissions from residential biomass heating systems. The review covers various aspects of particulate matter (PM) toxicity, including oxidative stress, inflammation, genotoxicity, and cytotoxicity, all of which have important implications for understanding the development of diseases. Studies in this field have highlighted the different mechanisms that biomass combustion particles activate, which vary depending on the combustion appliances and fuels. In general, particles from conventional combustion appliances are more potent in inducing cytotoxicity, DNA damage, inflammatory responses, and oxidative stress than those from modern appliances. The sensitivity of different cell lines to the toxic effects of biomass combustion particles is also influenced by cell type and culture conditions. One of the main challenges in this field is the considerable variation in sampling strategies, sample processing, experimental conditions, assays, and extraction techniques used in biomass burning PM studies. Advanced culture systems, such as co-cultures and air-liquid interface exposures, can provide more accurate insights into the effects of biomass combustion particles compared to simpler submerged monocultures. This review provides critical insights into the complex field of toxicity from residential biomass combustion emissions, underscoring the importance of continued research and standardisation of methodologies to better understand the associated health hazards and to inform targeted interventions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- E D Vicente
- Department of Environment and Planning, Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies (CESAM), University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
| | - D Figueiredo
- Department of Environment and Planning, Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies (CESAM), University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal; Department of Biology, Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
| | - C Alves
- Department of Environment and Planning, Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies (CESAM), University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Mawusi SK, Shrestha P, Xue C, Liu G. A comprehensive review of the production, adoption and sustained use of biomass pellets in Ghana. Heliyon 2023; 9:e16416. [PMID: 37292302 PMCID: PMC10245022 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e16416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2023] [Revised: 05/15/2023] [Accepted: 05/16/2023] [Indexed: 06/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Ghana's Renewable Energy Master Plan of 2019 includes the production and use of biomass pellets. However, pellets have neither been developed commercially nor included in Ghana's energy mix. This paper reviewed the prospect of production, adoption and sustained use of pellets in Ghana. Besides having abundant biomass resources, Ghana has high market demand and relevant policies for pellet development. The production of pellets can significantly replace traditional household biomass demand and improve environmental and health quality. However, the production and use of pellets are limited due to technical, financial, social and policy issues. Our estimates show that 3% of the annual national average household income will be spent on pellet demand for cooking, with the highest burden on rural households in Ghana. Practical measures are required since the cost of pellets and gasifier stoves may limit pellet adoption and use in Ghana. Based on study findings, it is recommended that the government of Ghana establishes a robust supply chain and provides infrastructure for pellet production and use. Existing renewable energy policies should be reviewed to remove ambiguities, attract investment, and build capacity in the renewable energy sector. Apart from raising public awareness of the benefits of pellets use, the government of Ghana should ensure that continuous and thorough impact assessments are undertaken to assess the implications of pellet production and use. This review will inform policymaking on achieving sustainable production, adoption and use of pellets and assess Ghana's contribution to achieving the United Nations' sustainable development goals.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Chunyu Xue
- Corresponding author. 15 Beisanhuan East Road, Chaoyang District, Beijing, 100029, China.
| | - Guangqing Liu
- Corresponding author. 15 Beisanhuan East Road, Chaoyang District, Beijing, 100029, China.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Stojanowska A, Zeynalli F, Wróbel M, Rybak J. The use of spider webs in the monitoring of air quality-A review. Integr Environ Assess Manag 2023; 19:32-44. [PMID: 35304975 DOI: 10.1002/ieam.4607] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2021] [Revised: 01/31/2022] [Accepted: 03/15/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Methods for using spider webs as passive air samplers have been developed over recent years and reported in more than a dozen articles. In this article, we present the typical procedures followed when using this new tool and critically review its application in air pollution assessment. To understand the state of research and application of spider webs in this field, we describe some advantages and disadvantages of their use in the analyses of air contaminants. The aim is to summarize the current knowledge on this subject, highlight gaps in the present studies, and arouse the interest of scientists on this issue. The increased effort could result in the standardization of the method at the national and international level. Integr Environ Assess Manag 2023;19:32-44. © 2022 SETAC.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Agnieszka Stojanowska
- Faculty of Environmental Engineering, Wrocław University of Science and Technology, Wrocław, Poland
| | - Farhad Zeynalli
- Faculty of Environmental Engineering, Wrocław University of Science and Technology, Wrocław, Poland
| | - Magdalena Wróbel
- Faculty of Environmental Engineering, Wrocław University of Science and Technology, Wrocław, Poland
| | - Justyna Rybak
- Faculty of Environmental Engineering, Wrocław University of Science and Technology, Wrocław, Poland
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Mutlu E, Cristy T, Stiffler B, Waidyanatha S, Chartier R, Jetter J, Krantz T, Shen G, Champion W, Miller B, Richey J, Burback B, Rider CV. Do Storage Conditions Affect Collected Cookstove Emission Samples? Implications for Field Studies. ANAL LETT 2022; 56:1911-1931. [PMID: 37200484 PMCID: PMC10054858 DOI: 10.1080/00032719.2022.2150772] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2022] [Revised: 11/18/2022] [Accepted: 11/18/2022] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Cookstove emissions are a significant source of indoor air pollution in developing countries and rural communities world-wide. Considering that many research sites for evaluating cookstove emissions and interventions are remote and require potentially lengthy periods of particulate matter (PM) filter sample storage in sub-optimal conditions (e.g., lack of cold storage), an important question is whether samples collected in the field are stable over time. To investigate this, red oak was burned in a natural-draft stove, and fine PM (PM2.5) was collected on polytetrafluoroethylene filters. Filters were stored at either ambient temperature or more optimal conditions (-20°C or -80°C) for up to 3 months and extracted. The effects of storage temperature and length on stability were evaluated for measurements of extractable organic matter (EOM), PM2.5, and polycyclic aromatic compound (PAC) levels in the filter extracts. A parallel, controlled laboratory condition was also evaluated to further explore sources of variability. In general, PM2.5 and EOM in both simulated field and laboratory samples were similar regardless of the storage condition or duration. The extracts were also analyzed by gas chromatography to quantify 22 PACs and determine similarities and/or differences between the conditions. PAC levels were a more sensitive stability measure in differentiating between storage conditions. The findings suggest that measurements are relatively consistent across storage duration/temperatures for filter samples with relatively low EOM levels. This study aims to inform protocols and filter storage procedures for exposure and intervention research conducted in low- and middle-income countries where studies may be budget- and infrastructure-limited.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Esra Mutlu
- Center for Computational Toxicology and Exposure, U.S. EPA, RTP, NC, USA
- Division of the Translational Toxicology, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA
| | | | | | - Suramya Waidyanatha
- Division of the Translational Toxicology, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA
| | | | - Jim Jetter
- Center for Environmental Measurement and Modelling, U.S. EPA, RTP, NC, USA
| | - Todd Krantz
- Center for Environmental Measurement and Modelling, U.S. EPA, RTP, NC, USA
| | - Guofeng Shen
- Center for Environmental Measurement and Modelling, U.S. EPA, RTP, NC, USA
| | - Wyatt Champion
- Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education (ORISE) Postdoctoral Fellow at U.S. EPA, Office of Research and Development, Center for Environmental Measurement and Modelling, RTP, NC, USA
| | | | | | | | - Cynthia V. Rider
- Division of the Translational Toxicology, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Vicente ED, Figueiredo D, Gonçalves C, Lopes I, Oliveira H, Kováts N, Pinheiro T, Alves CA. In vitro toxicity of particulate matter emissions from residential pellet combustion. J Environ Sci (China) 2022; 115:215-226. [PMID: 34969449 DOI: 10.1016/j.jes.2021.06.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2021] [Revised: 06/01/2021] [Accepted: 06/08/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Particulate matter emissions (PM10) from the combustion, in a residential stove, of two commercial brands of certified (ENplus A1) pellets, a non-certified brand and laboratory made pellets of acacia were tested for their ability to induce ecotoxic, cytotoxic, and mutagenic responses in unicellular organisms and a human cell line. Ecotoxicity was evaluated through the Vibrio fischeri bioluminescence inhibition assay. Moreover, cytotoxicity was assessed at two time points (24- and 48-hr) through two complementary techniques in order to evaluate the cellular metabolic activity and membrane integrity of human lung epithelial cells A549. The Ames test using two Salmonella typhimurium strains (TA100 and TA98) was employed to assess the mutagenic potential of the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon fraction extracted from the PM10 samples. Results obtained with the bioluminescent bacteria indicated that only particles from the combustion of acacia pellets were toxic. All samples induced impairment on the A549 cells metabolic activity, while no significant release of lactate dehydrogenase was recorded. PM10 emissions from acacia pellets were the most cytotoxic, while samples from both certified pellets evoked significant cytotoxicity at lower doses. Cytotoxicity time-dependency was only observed for PM10 from the combustion of acacia pellets and one of the brands of certified pellets. Mutagenic activity was not detected in both S. typhimurium strains. This study emphasises the role of the raw material for pellet manufacturing on the toxicological profile of PM emissions. Alternative raw materials should be deeply investigated before their use in pelletisation and combustion in residential appliances.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Estela D Vicente
- Department of Environment and Planning and CESAM - Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal.
| | - Daniela Figueiredo
- Department of Environment and Planning and CESAM - Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
| | - Cátia Gonçalves
- Department of Environment and Planning and CESAM - Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
| | - Isabel Lopes
- Department of Biology and CESAM - Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
| | - Helena Oliveira
- Department of Biology and CESAM - Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
| | - Nora Kováts
- Centre of Natural Environmental Sciences, University of Pannonia, Egyetem str. 10, 8200 Veszprém, Hungary
| | - Teresa Pinheiro
- Instituto de Bioengenharia e Biociências, Departamento de Engenharia e Ciências Nucleares, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Rovisco Pais 1, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Célia A Alves
- Department of Environment and Planning and CESAM - Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Qi J, Liu L, Wu J. Improving Combustion Technology for Cooking Activities for Pollutant Emission Reduction and Carbon Neutrality. Atmosphere 2022; 13:561. [DOI: 10.3390/atmos13040561] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Inefficient residential solid fuel combustion contributes significantly to ambient and indoor air pollutants. It consumes large quantities of fuel and produces harmful effects on health. Improvements in residential biomass cooking stoves have great potential for energy savings and emission reduction. This study presents an advanced biomass gasifier cooking stove to overcome the disadvantages of high-pollutant emissions from widely used stoves in China. The most innovative features of the stove are (1) negative pressure produced by a jet fan located at the junction of the chimney, and (2) combustion and carbonization processes taking place in the same chamber. Compared with a traditional chimney stove, the advanced biomass gasifier cooking stove presented higher TE (thermal efficiency) and comprehensively lower pollutant emissions when raw crop straws, crop straw briquettes, and pellets were burned in it. Approximately 40% CO2 and 90% of PM2.5 (the aerodynamic diameter was less than or equal to 2.5 μm) EFs (emission factors) were eliminated, and TE drastically tripled. Furthermore, biomass briquette/pellet was identified as more suitable than raw biomass as a fuel to be burned in the new stove, especially because the raw biomass displayed an increase in the EFs of As, Se, and Pb when burned in the new stove. The advancement in biomass cooking stove technology is a practical approach to reducing the emissions of CO2, PM2.5, and other hazardous pollutants.
Collapse
|
7
|
Gutiérrez J, Chica EL, Pérez JF. Parametric Analysis of a Gasification-Based Cookstove as a Function of Biomass Density, Gasification Behavior, Airflow Ratio, and Design. ACS Omega 2022; 7:7481-7498. [PMID: 35284767 PMCID: PMC8908516 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.1c05137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2021] [Accepted: 12/22/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
The energy performance and emissions (carbon monoxide and total suspended particulate matter) of a biomass gasification-based cookstove under a modified water boiling test (WBT 4.2.3 protocol) were characterized here. The controllable process parameters analyzed were the biomass bulk density (pellets-WP and chips-WCH) and the combustion-air/gasification-air ratio (2.8, 3.0, and 3.2). Moreover, a design parameter of the cookstove was analyzed through two combustion chamber designs (combustion chambers 1 and 2). The cookstove was characterized in detail considering the complete cookstove (control volume 1), the combustion chamber (control volume 2), and the gasification process (control volume 3). The cookstove reached an average efficiency of 25.2% for pellets and 24.1% for chips. The best behavior for the cookstove was achieved when pellets were used, which is attributed to their higher bulk density and to the fact that during their gasification process, the biochar yield was 12% higher, while the biomass consumption decreased by 16% compared to the chips. The carbon monoxide specific emissions were 2.78 g/MJd for pellets and 2.75 g/MJd for chips. On average, the cookstove released total suspended particulate matter between 74.11 and 122.70 mg/MJd. The cookstove low emissions are ascribed to the proper combustion air flow and the combustion chamber design, which favored the mixing between producer gas and combustion air.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jonatan Gutiérrez
- Grupo
de Manejo Eficiente de la Energía—GIMEL, Facultad de
Ingeniería, Universidad de Antioquia, Calle 67, No. 53-108, Medellín 050010, Colombia
- Grupo
Energía Alternativa—GEA, Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad de Antioquia, Calle 67, No. 53-108, Medellín 050010, Colombia
| | - Edwin Lenin Chica
- Grupo
Energía Alternativa—GEA, Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad de Antioquia, Calle 67, No. 53-108, Medellín 050010, Colombia
| | - Juan F. Pérez
- Grupo
de Manejo Eficiente de la Energía—GIMEL, Facultad de
Ingeniería, Universidad de Antioquia, Calle 67, No. 53-108, Medellín 050010, Colombia
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
DeMarini DM, Linak WP. Mutagenicity and carcinogenicity of combustion emissions are impacted more by combustor technology than by fuel composition: A brief review. Environ Mol Mutagen 2022; 63:135-150. [PMID: 35253926 PMCID: PMC9311424 DOI: 10.1002/em.22475] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2022] [Revised: 02/27/2022] [Accepted: 03/03/2022] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Studies during the past 50 years have characterized the carcinogenicity and mutagenicity of extractable organic material (EOM) of particulate matter (PM) in ambient air and from combustion emissions. We have summarized conclusions from these studies and present data supporting those conclusions for 50 combustion emissions, including carcinogenic potencies on mouse skin (papillomas/mouse/mg EOM), mutagenic potencies (revertants/μg EOM) in the Salmonella (Ames) mutagenicity assay, and mutagenicity emission factors (revertants/kg fuel or revertants/MJthermal ) in Salmonella. Mutagenic potencies of EOM from PM in ambient air and combustion emissions span 1-2 orders of magnitude, respectively. In contrast, the revertants/m3 span >5 orders of magnitude due to variable PM concentrations in ambient air. Carcinogenic potencies of EOM from combustion emissions on mouse skin and EOM-associated human lung cancer risk from those emissions both span ~3 orders of magnitude and are highly associated. The ubiquitous presence of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), nitroarenes, and aromatic amines results in mutagenic and carcinogenic potencies of PM that span only 1-3 orders of magnitude; most PM induces primarily G to T mutations. Mutagenicity emission factors of combustion emissions span 3-5 orders of magnitude and correlate with PAH emission factors (r > 0.9). Mutagenicity emission factors were largely a function of how material was burned (highly efficient modern combustors versus open burning) rather than what materials were burned. Combustion systems that minimize kinetic and mass-transfer limitations and promote complete oxidation also minimize the mutagenicity of their emissions. This fundamental engineering principle can inform environmental and public health assessments of combustion emissions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- David M. DeMarini
- Air Methods and Characterization Division, Center for Environmental Measurement and ModelingU.S. Environmental Protection AgencyResearch Triangle ParkNorth CarolinaUSA
| | - William P. Linak
- Air Methods and Characterization Division, Center for Environmental Measurement and ModelingU.S. Environmental Protection AgencyResearch Triangle ParkNorth CarolinaUSA
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Champion WM, Hays MD, Williams C, Virtaranta L, Barnes M, Preston W, Jetter JJ. Cookstove Emissions and Performance Evaluation Using a New ISO Protocol and Comparison of Results with Previous Test Protocols. Environ Sci Technol 2021; 55:15333-15342. [PMID: 34714622 PMCID: PMC8855438 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.1c03390] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
In 2018, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) 19867-1 "Harmonized laboratory test protocols" were released for establishing improved quality and comparability for data on cookstove air pollutant emissions, efficiency, safety, and durability. This is the first study that compares emissions [carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, total hydrocarbons, methane, nitrogen oxides, fine particulate matter (PM2.5), organic carbon, elemental carbon, and ultrafine particles] and efficiency data between the ISO protocol and the Water Boiling Test (WBT). The study examines six stove/fuel combinations [liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), pellet, wood fan, wood rocket, three stone fire, and charcoal] tested in the same US EPA laboratory. Evaluation of the ISO protocol shows improvements over previous test protocols and that results are relatively consistent with former WBT data in terms of tier ratings for emissions and efficiency, as defined by the ISO 19867-3 "Voluntary Performance Targets." Most stove types remain similarly ranked using ISO and WBT protocols, except charcoal and LPG are in higher PM2.5 tiers with the ISO protocol. Additionally, emissions data including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are utilized to compare between the ISO and Firepower Sweep Test (FST) protocols. Compared to the FST, the ISO protocol results in generally higher PM2.5 tier ratings.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Wyatt M. Champion
- Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education (ORISE) Postdoctoral Fellow at U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, Air Methods and Characterization Division, 109 T.W. Alexander Drive, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
| | - Michael D. Hays
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, Air Methods and Characterization Division, 109 T.W. Alexander Drive, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27709, USA
| | | | - Larry Virtaranta
- Jacobs Technology Inc., 600 William Northern Boulevard, Tullahoma, TN 37388, USA
| | - Mark Barnes
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, Air Methods and Characterization Division, 109 T.W. Alexander Drive, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27709, USA
| | | | - James J. Jetter
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, Air Methods and Characterization Division, 109 T.W. Alexander Drive, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27709, USA
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Etchie AT, Etchie TO, Elemile OO, Boladale O, Oni T, Akanno I, Bankole DT, Ibitoye OO, Pillarisetti A, Sivanesan S, Afolabi TY, Krishnamurthi K, Swaminathan N. Burn to kill: Wood ash a silent killer in Africa. Sci Total Environ 2020; 748:141316. [PMID: 32814289 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.141316] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2020] [Revised: 07/22/2020] [Accepted: 07/26/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Aside the emissions, burning of wood in traditional cookstoves (TCs) also generates substantial amount of ash containing hazardous pollutants such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and toxic metals. But, their concentrations in the ash, particularly in Africa where over 70% of the population utilize TCs, remain unknown. Here, we determined concentrations of sixteen PAHs and eleven heavy metals in ashes from twelve different African TCs, comprising six three-stone fires (TSFs) and six built-in-place cookstoves (BIPCs), burning common African wood species under real world situation. For each TC, ash samples were collected for six consecutive days (Monday-Saturday), and a total of seventy-two daily samples were collected from January-June 2019. Ash yields were measured gravimetrically, and concentrations of the pollutants were determined following standard analytical protocols. The results were used alongside secondary data (annual fuelwood consumption, African fuelwood densities, population proportion using fuelwood and surface human population density) to estimate annual tonnage, exposure potential and risk to health in Africa, using Monte Carlo simulation technique. The ash yields from all TCs studied exceeded 1% on dry weight basis, indicating that ash is a major waste by-product of wood combustion in TCs. TSFs produced more ash (5.7 ± 0.7%) than BIPCs (3.4 ± 1.0%). Concentrations of As, Cd, Hg and Pb in ashes were significantly higher (α = 0.05) for TSFs than BIPCs. In contrast, concentrations of PAHs were higher in ashes from BIPCs than TSFs. Assuming ash consumption rates range from 250 to 500 mg/day for young children weighing 10 to 30 kg, the upper dose (μg/kg-day) of Pb (0.2-3.9) or Σ16PAHs (0.02-0.34), for instance, surpasses the 0.3 μg/kg-day of Pb or PAH recognized as causing adverse effects in children, indicating a concern. The top five countries with the highest annual tonnage or exposure potential to toxic pollutants are Nigeria>Ethiopia>DR-Congo>Tanzania>Uganda, or Rwanda>Burundi>Uganda>Nigeria>Guinea-Bissau, respectively.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Oluwatobi Boladale
- Department of Physical Sciences, Landmark University, Omu-Aran, Nigeria.
| | - Timileyin Oni
- Department of Civil Engineering, Landmark University, Omu-Aran, Nigeria.
| | - Ifeanyi Akanno
- Department of Civil Engineering, Landmark University, Omu-Aran, Nigeria.
| | | | | | - Ajay Pillarisetti
- Department of Environmental Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, USA.
| | - Saravanadevi Sivanesan
- National Environmental Engineering Research Institute, Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR-NEERI), Nagpur, India.
| | | | - Kannan Krishnamurthi
- National Environmental Engineering Research Institute, Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR-NEERI), Nagpur, India.
| | | |
Collapse
|