Occurrence of Trypanosoma caninum in areas overlapping with leishmaniasis in Brazil: what is the real impact of canine leishmaniasis control?

Phylogenetic evidence for a clade of tick-associated trypanosomes

BACKGROUND

Trypanosomes are protozoan parasites of vertebrates that are of medical and veterinary concern. A variety of blood-feeding invertebrates have been identified as vectors, but the role of ticks in trypanosome transmission remains unclear.

METHODS

In this study, we undertook extensive molecular screening for the presence and genetic diversity of trypanosomes in field ticks.

RESULTS

Examination of 1089 specimens belonging to 28 tick species from Europe and South America led to the identification of two new trypanosome strains. The prevalence may be as high as 4% in tick species such as the castor bean tick Ixodes ricinus, but we found no evidence of transovarial transmission. Further phylogenetic analyses based on 18S rRNA, EF1-α, hsp60 and hsp85 gene sequences revealed that different tick species, originating from different continents, often harbour phylogenetically related trypanosome strains and species. Most tick-associated trypanosomes cluster in a monophyletic clade, the Trypanosoma pestanai clade, distinct from clades of trypanosomes associated with transmission by other blood-feeding invertebrates.

CONCLUSIONS

These observations suggest that ticks may be specific arthropod hosts for trypanosomes of the T. pestanai clade. Phylogenetic analyses provide further evidence that ticks may transmit these trypanosomes to a diversity of mammal species (including placental and marsupial species) on most continents.

Diagnosis of animal trypanosomoses: proper use of current tools and future prospects

Reliable diagnostic tools are needed to choose the appropriate treatment and proper control measures for animal trypanosomoses, some of which are pathogenic. Trypanosoma cruzi, for example, is responsible for Chagas disease in Latin America. Similarly, pathogenic animal trypanosomoses of African origin (ATAO), including a variety of Trypanosoma species and subspecies, are currently found in Africa, Latin America and Asia. ATAO limit global livestock productivity and impact food security and the welfare of domestic animals. This review focusses on implementing previously reviewed diagnostic methods, in a complex epizootiological scenario, by critically assessing diagnostic results at the individual or herd level. In most cases, a single diagnostic method applied at a given time does not unequivocally identify the various parasitological and disease statuses of a host. These include “non-infected”, “asymptomatic carrier”, “sick infected”, “cured/not cured” and/or “multi-infected”. The diversity of hosts affected by these animal trypanosomoses and their vectors (or other routes of transmission) is such that integrative, diachronic approaches are needed that combine: (i) parasite detection, (ii) DNA, RNA or antigen detection and (iii) antibody detection, along with epizootiological information. The specificity of antibody detection tests is restricted to the genus or subgenus due to cross-reactivity with other Trypanosoma spp. and Trypanosomatidae, but sensitivity is high. The DNA-based methods implemented over the last three decades have yielded higher specificity and sensitivity for active infection detection in hosts and vectors. However, no single diagnostic method can detect all active infections and/or trypanosome species or subspecies. The proposed integrative approach will improve the prevention, surveillance and monitoring of animal trypanosomoses with the available diagnostic tools. However, further developments are required to address specific gaps in diagnostic methods and the sustainable control or elimination of these diseases.

Aflagellar Epimastigote of Trypanosoma caninum: Biological and Ultrastructural Study of this Atypical Evolutionary Form

PURPOSE

Trypanosoma caninum exhibits atypical epimastigote forms under axenic conditions. This study aimed to analyze this evolutionary form under different cultivation conditions and provide more information about this evolutionary form.

METHODS

We selected a T. caninum isolate with a high percentage of aflagellar epimastigote forms in axenic cultures. Two separate growth curves were generated for T. caninum cultured in Schneider axenic medium and co-cultured with the DH82 cell line, followed by analysis and quantification of evolutionary forms using bright field microscopy. In addition, ultrastructural analysis of T. caninum was performed under both cultivation conditions.

RESULTS

The growth curves of T. caninum under axenic and co-cultivation conditions exhibited similar profiles. However, in the axenic culture, the number of parasites was three times higher at the peak of the exponential phase than in the co-culture. In contrast to that in the axenic culture, in which only the epimastigote forms were observed along the entire curve, during co-cultivation with the DH82 cell line, differentiation was observed for the trypomastigote and spheromastigote forms in low proportions. These results demonstrated that when cultured alone, the T. caninum isolate preserved the aflagellar epimastigote form, but in the presence of DH82 canine macrophages, they differentiated into evolutionary forms, particularly trypomastigote forms. Moreover, this study is the first to describe the presence of lipid bodies, structure described as the parasite's nutritional reserve, throughout the body of T. caninum.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings describe biological and ultrastructural aspects of epimastigote aflagellar and suggest that this evolutionary form may be involved in the biological cycle of T. caninum, still unknown.

Trypanosoma Species in Small Nonflying Mammals in an Area With a Single Previous Chagas Disease Case

Trypanosomatids are hemoflagellate parasites that even though they have been increasingly studied, many aspects of their biology and taxonomy remain unknown. The aim of this study was to investigate the Trypanosoma sp. transmission cycle in nonflying small mammals in an area where a case of acute Chagas disease occurred in Mangaratiba municipality, Rio de Janeiro state. Three expeditions were conducted in the area: the first in 2012, soon after the human case, and two others in 2015. Sylvatic mammals were captured and submitted to blood collection for trypanosomatid parasitological and serological exams. Dogs from the surrounding areas where the sylvatic mammals were captured were also tested for T. cruzi infection. DNA samples were extracted from blood clots and positive hemocultures, submitted to polymerase chain reaction targeting SSU rDNA and gGAPDH genes, sequenced and phylogenetic analysed. Twenty-one wild mammals were captured in 2012, mainly rodents, and 17 mammals, mainly marsupials, were captured in the two expeditions conducted in 2015. Only four rodents demonstrated borderline serological T. cruzi test (IFAT), two in 2012 and two in 2015. Trypanosoma janseni was the main Trypanosoma species identified, and isolates were obtained solely from Didelphis aurita. In addition to biological differences, molecular differences are suggestive of genetic diversity in this flagellate species. Trypanosoma sp. DID was identified in blood clots from D. aurita in single and mixed infections with T. janseni. Concerning dogs, 12 presented mostly borderline serological titers for T. cruzi and no positive hemoculture. In blood clots from 11 dogs, T. cruzi DNA was detected and characterized as TcI (n = 9) or TcII (n = 2). Infections by Trypanosoma rangeli lineage E (n = 2) and, for the first time, Trypanosoma caninum, Trypanosoma dionisii, and Crithidia mellificae (n = 1 each) were also detected in dogs. We concluded that despite the low mammalian species richness and degraded environment, a high Trypanosoma species richness species was being transmitted with the predominance of T. janseni and not T. cruzi, as would be expected in a locality of an acute case of Chagas disease.

Clinical-dermatological, histological abnormalities and prevalence of Trypanosoma caninum and Leishmania infantum in dogs from Midwest region of Brazil

Leishmania infantum is a trypanosomatid that causes parasitic dermatopathy in dogs. Trypanosoma caninum is another trypanosomatid, which infects the skin of dogs, although cutaneous abnormalities are absent. This study aimed to investigate the occurrence of T. caninum infection and its associated cutaneous and histological changes and compare it with the occurrence of L. infantum infection in dogs. The study included 150 dogs, of which T. caninum infection was identified in 3 (2%) and L. infantum infection in 15 (10%) of them, with no association (p>0.05) of these infections with the breed, gender, age, or cutaneous abnormalities. The cutaneous abnormalities were based on 1 (4.8%) and 12 (57.1%) dogs infected by T. caninum and L. infantum, respectively. The dermatohistopathological abnormalities in the dogs infected with T. caninum included mild perivascular lymphohistioplasmacytic infiltrates in the clinically asymptomatic ones, while in those with dermatological abnormalities, acanthosis, epidermal orthokeratotic hyperkeratosis, melanomacrophages, and co-infection with Microsporum sp. and Trichophyton sp. were observed. InL. infantum infected, the histopathological findings included chronic granulomatous inflammatory infiltrates and structures compatible with amastigotes. Despite the low frequency of T. caninum infection, our findings suggest that this trypanosomatid, unlike L. infantum, does not cause any macroscopic skin abnormalities.

Biological study of Trypanosoma caninum under co-culture with different feeder layer cells

Trypanosoma caninum is a parasite isolated from domestic dogs, of which several biological aspects remain unknown, including evolutive forms found in vertebrate hosts. The objective of this study was to evaluate co-cultures of T. caninum with different cell lines as feeder layers to monitor the differentiation process and investigate infective potential. The study was performed using DH-82, MDCK, and Lulo cell lines. T. caninum from axenic culture was added to the cultured adherent cells. At intervals over 30 days, aliquots of the supernatant were collected for quantification and assessment of differentiation. Infectivity assays were performed on the aforementioned cell lines seeded on glass coverslips and evaluated after 6, 24, and 72 h. In the supernatant of the feeder layer, T. caninum presented similar growth profiles, with epimastigote and trypomastigote forms in binary and multiple divisions. During co-culture with DH-82 and MDCK cells, a higher level of differentiation to trypomastigotes was observed. This study shows that the differentiation process of this parasite can vary according to culture conditions and that DH-82 and MDCK lineages could be applied to the study of trypomastigote forms. All forms of T. caninum described until now (aflagellar epimastigotes, typical epimastigotes, or trypomastigotes) were unable to infect the cell line Finally, this study provides additional data about morphobiological aspects. Although the biological cycle of T. caninum has not been established, the present data suggest the importance of feeder layers in promoting the growth and differentiation of this new parasite.

PREVALENCE OF AMERICAN TRYPANOSOMIASIS AND LEISHMANIASES IN DOMESTIC DOGS IN A RURAL AREA OF THE MUNICIPALITY OF SÃO JOÃO DO PIAUÍ, PIAUÍ STATE, BRAZIL

Chagas disease and the leishmaniases are endemic zoonoses of great importance to public health in the state of Piauí, Brazil. The domestic dog (Canis familiaris) is a major reservoir, host of Trypanosoma cruzi and Leishmania spp. in both urban and rural areas, playing an important role in the transmission of these parasites. The present study evaluated the prevalence of both infectious diseases in dogs of a rural area in the municipality of São João do Piauí, Piauí State. One hundred twenty-nine blood samples were collected for serological assessment: for the leishmaniases, 49 (38%) animals tested positive by the Dual-Path Platform technology (DPP), nine (6%) by the Enzyme-linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA), and 19 (14.7%) by the Indirect Fluorescent Antibody test (IFA); while for American Trypanosomiasis, 36 (28%) dogs were reagent by ELISA and 21 by IFA. Of the 129 dogs sampled, 76 were submitted to xenodiagnosis, bone marrow aspiration and skin biopsy to perform parasitological tests whose results showed only one (2.3%) positive skin sample for Trypanosoma caninum and one positive xenodiagnosis for T. cruzi, both results confirmed by molecular assays. Three hundred triatomines of the species Triatoma brasiliensis and 552 phlebotomines - 509 (97%) of the species Lutzomyia longipalpis, were also captured.

Molecular study of Trypanosoma caninum isolates based on different genetic markers

Trypanosoma caninum is a parasite recently described in dogs, whose life cycle is rather unknown. Here, we performed a genetic study with T. caninum samples obtained in different Brazilian regions. The study was based on PCR assays target to small and large subunit ribosomal DNA (rDNA) (18S rDNA and 24Sα rDNA), cytochrome B (Cyt b), and internal transcribed spacer 1 rDNA (ITS1 rDNA) following by the sequence analysis. Additionally, we used primers for the variable regions of kinetoplast DNA (kDNA) minicircles and endonucleases restriction in the ITS1 rDNA amplification product. T. caninum samples displayed the same patterns. Tree construction confirmed the close relationship between T. caninum samples, regardless of the molecular target used and endonuclease restriction digestion revealed that all samples have the same restriction profile. Therefore, T. caninum seems to be a genetically homogeneous specie. In the kDNA assay, T. caninum possessed a different molecular size profile with respect to others trypanosomes, 330 and 350 bp. This study provides nucleotide sequences from different regions of the genome of T. caninum that certainly facilitate future studies.

Aflagellar epimastigote forms are found in axenic culture of Trypanosoma caninum

Representatives of the genus Trypanosoma have been traditionally found in epimastigote, espheromastigote and trypomastigote flagellated forms in axenic cultures. Trypanosoma caninum is a trypanosomatid that has recently been reported infecting dogs in endemic areas of canine leishmaniasis in Brazil. It presents specific biological characteristics and it is found exclusively on healthy skin. Here, we describe the evolutive forms of this parasite showing not only the forms commonly found in culture, but also epimastigote forms with no free flagellum. The study was conducted using scanning and transmission electron microscopy and, we demonstrate that typical flagellated epimastigotes originate from forms without flagellum, although the latter may remain without differentiation in the culture. Two hypotheses are considered and discussed in this paper: (i) the aflagellated epimastigotes are a typical developmental forms of T. caninum and (ii) the emergence of these aflagellated forms could be resultant from a disturbed process during cell division caused by interfering specific proteins, which leads to inability to form and regulate the flagellum length. In any case, considering that T. caninum is a parasite that is still little studied, the information brought by our study adds data which may be useful to clarify aspects on the cell cycle of this intriguing parasite that has been found in different regions of Brazil.

Trypanosoma caninum, a new parasite described in dogs in Brazil: aspects of natural infection

Trypanosoma caninum constitutes the most recent trypanosomatid species infecting dogs in Brazil. Due to the limited data available about this parasite, this study aims to disclose clinical and laboratory findings from 14 dogs naturally infected. The dogs were diagnosed during a cross-sectional survey in Cuiabá (Mato Grosso, Brazil) and followed up at an interval of 3, 6, and 12 mo in order to evaluate the clinical evolution and to investigate the parasite, the DNA, or both in different biological samples (intact skin, cutaneous scar, blood, bone marrow, and lymph node aspirate) by parasitological (culture and smear exam) and molecular (DNA-based tests) methods. Specific anti-T. caninum and anti-Leishmania antibody production was also evaluated. Ten of 14 dogs infected by T. caninum showed a good general state at the time of diagnosis, and this status did not vary during the follow-up. Anti-T. caninum and anti-Leishmania IgG antibodies were detected by IFAT in 10 and 2 animals, respectively. Concomitant infection by Leishmania chagasi was confirmed in 2 dogs, indicating an overlap of endemic areas in Cuiabá. Trypanosoma caninum (parasite or DNA) was found only in the intact skin in all animals examined. Our results suggest that T. caninum infection can be manifested as an asymptomatic case with low humoral immune response.

Canine visceral leishmaniasis: diagnostic approaches based on polymerase chain reaction employing different biological samples

The accurate diagnosis of canine visceral leishmaniasis (CanL) is essential for visceral leishmaniasis control. To this end, DNA detection on different biological samples has been employed. In this study, we report the use of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay on samples such as buffy coat, bone marrow, intact skin and cutaneous ulcers fragments, and lymph node aspirate collected from 430 dogs to determine the suitable biological sample for use in CanL diagnosis. The PCR results were correlated with clinical status and other tests previously performed. Leishmania chagasi DNA was detected in 14.6% (n = 63) of the dogs investigated, regardless of the sample analyzed. Our results showed that symptomatic cases were easily diagnosed when compared to asymptomatic animals; however, the PCR proved to be very useful for Leishmania DNA detection, mainly in lymph node aspirate (41; 9.6%), irrespective of the clinical status of the dog. The finding that the lymph node aspirate produced high positivity rates and the fact that this specimen was obtained by noninvasive methods highlight its use in epidemiological survey by PCR for CanL diagnosis.

Sensitivity and specificity of in situ hybridization for diagnosis of cutaneous infection by Leishmania infantum in dogs

An accurate diagnosis of infection by Leishmania infantum in dogs is fundamental for the control of zoonotic visceral leishmaniasis (VL). Histopathology (HP) and immunohistochemistry (IHC) are frequently used for the histological diagnosis of L. infantum in dogs but have shown limited accuracy. To improve the sensitivity and specificity of the histological diagnosis of VL, we evaluated automated in situ hybridization (ISH) using a generic probe for Leishmania and a specific probe for L. infantum in surgical skin biopsy specimens of dogs. The ISH results were compared with those of HP and IHC, using parasitological culture as the reference standard. Skin samples from 51 dogs with cutaneous L. infantum infection and 51 noninfected dogs were randomly selected from samples of dogs from various cities in Brazil where canine VL is endemic. These samples were processed for parasitological culture, HP, IHC, and ISH using both probes. The sensitivities of ISH using the specific probe, ISH using the generic probe, IHC, and HP were, respectively, 74.5%, 70.6%, 69.5%, and 57.6%. The specificity of both ISH probes tested was 100%, and there was no cross-hybridization of the generic and specific probes with selected pathogenic fungi and protozoa. The specific probe discriminated L. infantum from the other species of Leishmania that infect dogs in the New World. ISH is highly sensitive and specific for the diagnosis of L. infantum in histologic samples of skin from infected dogs and can be used on routine biopsy material to make a diagnosis of leishmaniasis.