Close friendships among senior adults

Gender Segregation and Its Correlates at Midlife and Beyond

We investigated gender segregation and its correlates in the friendships of U.S. adults aged 50-74 years (177 women; 52 men). Gender segregation existed in our midlife sample such that 74% of friend nominations were same gender. Similar to research on other periods of the adult lifespan we found that for women, gender segregation was negatively correlated with competitive activity orientation, positively correlated with beliefs about same-gender peers' communicative responsiveness and negatively correlated with beliefs about other-gender peers' communicative responsiveness. Women's gender segregation was also negatively correlated with masculinity and positively correlated with gender-reference group identity. For men, gender segregation was negatively correlated with beliefs about other-gender peers' communicative responsiveness and positively correlated with gender-reference group identity. Our results suggest that gender segregation continues to exist at midlife and that there is some continuity in the correlates of gender segregation across adulthood.

Assessing social relationships in adolescents and adults: Constructing and validating the Affective Relationships Scale

We propose an Affective Relationships Scale (ARS), specifically constructed to describe core and relatively stable social relationships among people of both genders and of a wide range of ages, from adolescents to adults. The ARS assesses the personal frameworks within which individuals organise their multiple social relationships, by assigning psychological functions to significant others. In Study 1, the ARS among 279 female college students was examined for its factorial validity, to confirm that it reflected normative trends of social relationships that had been documented by previous research(e.g. affective needs toward friends would be stronger than towards parents; “Giving nurture” would be sought more strongly than “Seeking proximity”); and to classify individual patterns of personal frameworks. Study 2 examined the ARS’s convergent and discriminant validity by correlating its scores with those of other psychological measures for 142 female college students. In Study 3, the examination of ARS among a total of 1399 participants of both genders from adolescence to middle-age showed its applicability to males and over a wide age range. Two salient characteristics of the ARS, the delineation of individual patterns of social relationships, and the applicability to different cultures, are discussed.

Patterns of Social Relationships and Psychological Well-being among the Elderly

On the premise that social relationships among elderly adults differ in terms of the most significant, dominant figure, this study aimed to examine: (1) whether there were qualitative differences in supportive functions between family-dominant and friend-dominant affective relationships, and (2) whether “lone wolves”, who were deficient in human resources, had difficulties in maintaining their well-being. A total of 148 Japanese, over the age of 65, both living in communities and in institutions were individually interviewed about their social relationships using a self-report type method, the Picture Affective Relationships test, and their well-being was assessed using Depression, Self-esteem, Life satisfaction, and Subjective health scales. Results showed that there were no differences in psychological well-being between family-dominant and friend-dominant participants, but those who lacked affective figures had lower scores in subjective well-being than did their family-dominant and friend-dominant counterparts. The generalisation of these findings to other cultures is discussed.

Adaptation by Elders to New Living Arrangements Following Hospitalization: A Qualitative, Retrospective Analysis

Relocation experience emerged as a major finding from two previous studies that tracked elders in the community after discharge from a transitional unit. This study involved follow-up of 5 elders from the two previous studies who relocated to a variety of new living arrangements. Purposes were (a) to identify how decisions were made to change living arrangements, (b) to describe the process of adaptation to relocation as it evolved over time including challenges and strategies used to address them, and (c) to identify indicators of effective adaptation. A phenomenological approach based on interviews, observations, and comparative analysis was used to capture the insiders' views of these elders. An account of each individual adaptive process was developed. Comparison across cases led to two major themes—sense of place and sense of self—which are proposed as indicators of effective adaptation. Implications of findings for service provision, public policy, and future research are examined.

Sex and Gender as Factors in in Romantic Partnerships and Best Friendships

For the majority of people, two key non-kin figures form part of the central support clique that resides at the centre of their social network. These are the best friend and the romantic partner, and both play distinct roles which are of benefit to the individual concerned. However, while the romantic partner will always have been chosen in the context of the mating market, we do not know whether the selection of a best friend occurs within a similar market of competition and assessment. This study used real self-rated attribute data for participants and their best friends and romantic partners to explore: (1) whether best friendships operate within a mating market; (2) whether, once established, they show evidence for positive illusion, projection or competition; and (3) whether assortative mating is present. Further, we considered whether the sex of the best friend relative to the participant influences these results. We found that same-sex best friends have an acknowledged role linked to social connectedness and behaviour, that for same-sex best friends both male and female participants show evidence for homophily or projection rather than mate competition, that neither male nor female participants appear to view cross-sex best friends as potential mates, and that the evidence for ‘assortative mating’ is stronger within best friendships than romantic partnerships regardless of best friend sex. Our results imply that despite a culture of commitment and monogamy, male participants display behaviours within their romantic partnerships which suggest they are still active within the mating market. In contrast, for both sexes the best friendship is unaffected by the mating market and the stability and contentment that characterises best friendships is underpinned by a degree of similarity stronger than that within the romantic partnership.

The dialectic of friendship for people with psychiatric disabilities

In the psychiatric literature, the meaning and importance of friendship has remained largely unexplored, subsumed under the rubric of social support or viewed as a component of community integration. Twenty-one qualitative interviews were conducted with individuals suffering from psychiatric disabilities focusing on the meaning of friendship as they described it. Analysis revealed the contrasts, contradiction and paradox of friendship for this group of people. The ongoing struggles of people with psychiatric disabilities regarding the need to connect with others and have friends, and conversely, the need to be alone and to withdraw from others, was highlighted.

When it is more than a job: close relationships between home health aides and older clients

OBJECTIVES

A qualitative study was conducted to investigate the types of relationships that were formed between older clients and their home health aides and to identify structural characteristics and interactive processes that facilitated various types of relationships.

METHODS

Using semistructured interviews, members of 16 families and their home health aides described the relationships that developed between clients and aides and the conditions and contexts that facilitated or inhibited close relationship development. Data were coded and analyzed using a multistage process.

RESULTS

Most relationships between aides and older clients were described as friendship or like one of the family, with friendship occurring most often. Several structural conditions and numerous interactive friendship processes were identified. The cognitive process of boundary setting discriminated between friendships and family-like relationships.

DISCUSSION

Results show support for socioemotional selectivity theory and highlight the benefits of close relationships for older homebound adults and their home health aides.

The Relationship Orientation Induction Procedure

Data from 160 undergraduates indicated that exchange and communal orientation can be experimentally induced.

Explorations of close friendship: a concept analysis

Friendship is a meaningful and highly significant human activity. Every psychiatric nurse would acknowledge the value of friendship to mental health. But what is friendship? Development of theoretical understanding and research based interventions using friendship are hampered by inconsistent definitions of friendship. Using concept analysis, the author discusses the characteristics of close friendship and its distinguishing features. The definition created has potential implications for future theory development, research, and nursing care.